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Typically, these systems utilize motion sensors or cameras that have a limited field of view, leading to potential monitoring gaps within a room. However, humans release carbon dioxide (CO<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>) through respiration which spreads within an enclosed space. Consequently, an observable rise in CO<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub> concentration is noted when one or more individuals are present in a room. This study examines an approach to detect the presence or absence of individuals indoors by analyzing the ambient air\u2019s CO<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub> concentration using simple Markov Chain Models. The proposed scheme achieved an accuracy of up to 97% in both experimental and real data demonstrating its efficacy in practical scenarios.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/frobt.2023.1280745","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,16]],"date-time":"2023-10-16T07:06:28Z","timestamp":1697439988000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Hidden Markov models for presence detection based on CO2 fluctuations"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"Christos","family":"Karasoulas","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Christoforos","family":"Keroglou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Eleftheria","family":"Katsiri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Georgios Ch.","family":"Sirakoulis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","first-page":"1","article-title":"Estimating occupancy using indoor carbon dioxide concentrations only in an office building: a method and qualitative assessment","author":"Ansanay-Alex","year":"2013"},{"key":"B2","first-page":"1477","article-title":"Probability of error bounds for failure diagnosis and classification in hidden Markov models","author":"Athanasopoulou","year":"2008"},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enbuild.2015.11.071","article-title":"Accurate occupancy detection of an office room from light, temperature, humidity and co2 measurements using statistical learning models","volume":"112","author":"Candanedo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Energy Build."},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4612-5320-4","volume-title":"Large deviations techniques and applications","author":"Dembo","year":"1998"},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"892","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cviu.2013.04.004","article-title":"A real time algorithm for people tracking using contextual reasoning","volume":"117","author":"Di Lascio","year":"2013","journal-title":"Comput. 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