{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,5]],"date-time":"2026-06-05T04:31:31Z","timestamp":1780633891537,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":49,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,22]],"date-time":"2024-08-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1724284800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Robot. AI"],"abstract":"<jats:p>When designing social robots for educational settings, there is often an emphasis on domain knowledge. This presents challenges: 1) Either robots must autonomously acquire domain knowledge, a currently unsolved problem in HRI, or 2) the designers provide this knowledge implying re-programming the robot for new contexts. Recent research explores alternative, relatively easier to port, knowledge areas like student rapport, engagement, and synchrony though these constructs are typically treated as the ultimate goals, when the final goal should be students\u2019 learning. Our aim is to propose a shift in how engagement is considered, aligning it naturally with learning. We introduce the notion of a skilled ignorant peer robot: a robot peer that has little to no domain knowledge but possesses knowledge of student behaviours conducive to learning, i.e., behaviours indicative of productive engagement as extracted from student behavioral profiles. We formally investigate how such a robot\u2019s interventions manipulate the children\u2019s engagement conducive to learning. Specifically, we evaluate two versions of the proposed robot, namely, Harry and Hermione, in a user study with 136 students where each version differs in terms of the intervention strategy. Harry focuses on which suggestions to intervene with from a pool of communication, exploration, and reflection inducing suggestions, while Hermione also carefully considers when and why to intervene. While the teams interacting with Harry have higher productive engagement correlated to learning, this engagement is not affected by the robot\u2019s intervention scheme. In contrast, Hermione\u2019s well-timed interventions, deemed more useful, correlate with productive engagement though engagement is not correlated to learning. These results highlight the potential of a social educational robot as a skilled ignorant peer and stress the importance of precisely timing the robot interventions in a learning environment to be able to manipulate moderating variable of interest such as productive engagement.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/frobt.2024.1385780","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,22]],"date-time":"2024-08-22T07:28:53Z","timestamp":1724311733000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Social robots as skilled ignorant peers for supporting learning"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Jauwairia","family":"Nasir","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Barbara","family":"Bruno","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pierre","family":"Dillenbourg","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0178126","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0178126","article-title":"Robot education peers in a situated primary school study: personalisation promotes child learning","volume":"12","author":"Baxter","year":"2017","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"B2","unstructured":"Confrontation socio-cognitive et r\u00e9solution de probl\u00e8mes\n          \n          \n            \n              Blaye\n              A.\n            \n          \n          Aix-en-Provence, France\n          Centre de Recherche en Psychologie Cognitive, Universit\u00e9 de Provence\n          \n          1988"},{"key":"B3","first-page":"4360","article-title":"Applying behavioral strategies for student engagement using a robotic educational agent","author":"Brown","year":"2013"},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"721","DOI":"10.1007\/s12369-019-00589-w","article-title":"Children teach handwriting to a social robot with different learning competencies","volume":"11","author":"Chandra","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Soc. Robotics"},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1080\/00461520.2014.965823","article-title":"The ICAP framework: linking cognitive engagement to active learning outcomes","volume":"49","author":"Chi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Educ. Psychol."},{"key":"B6","article-title":"Social-task engagement: striking a balance between the robot and the task","volume":"13","author":"Corrigan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Embodied Commun. Goals Intentions Work ICSR\u201913"},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-809324-5.05613-3","volume-title":"Intrinsic motivation and self-determination","author":"Deci","year":"2017"},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100501","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijcci.2022.100501","article-title":"Engagement in longitudinal child-robot language learning interactions: disentangling robot and task engagement","volume":"33","author":"de Haas","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Child-Computer Interact."},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"831633","DOI":"10.3389\/frobt.2022.831633","article-title":"Social robots in applied settings: a long-term study on adaptive robotic tutors in higher education","volume":"9","author":"Donnermann","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Robotics AI"},{"key":"B10","first-page":"71","article-title":"\u201cAnd then what happens?\u201d promoting children\u2019s verbal creativity using a robot","author":"Elgarf","year":""},{"key":"B11","first-page":"540","article-title":"Creativebot: a creative storyteller robot to stimulate creativity in children","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 2022 international conference on multimodal interaction","author":"Elgarf","year":""},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3503799","article-title":"Identification of low-engaged learners in robot-led second language conversations with adults","volume":"11","author":"Engwall","year":"2022","journal-title":"ACM Trans. Human-Robot Interact."},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.3102\/00346543074001059","article-title":"School engagement: potential of the concept, state of the evidence","volume":"74","author":"Fredricks","year":"2004","journal-title":"Rev. Educ. Res."},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.15607\/RSS.2020.XVI.103","article-title":"A social robot mediator to foster collaboration and inclusion among children","volume-title":"Robotics: science and systems XVI","author":"Gillet","year":"2020"},{"key":"B15","first-page":"3951","article-title":"Affective personalization of a social robot tutor for children\u2019s second language skills","author":"Gordon","year":"2016"},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"601","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-35888-4_56","article-title":"A robot math tutor that gives feedback","volume-title":"Social robotics","author":"Hindriks","year":"2019"},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1111\/cdep.12277","article-title":"Social robots for early language learning: current evidence and future directions","volume":"12","author":"Kanero","year":"2018","journal-title":"Child. Dev. Perspect."},{"key":"B18","first-page":"159","article-title":"A framework for capturing distinguishing user interaction behaviors in novel interfaces","author":"Kardan","year":"2011"},{"key":"B19","first-page":"67","article-title":"The robot who tried too hard: social behaviour of a robot tutor can negatively affect child learning","author":"Kennedy","year":"2015"},{"key":"B20","first-page":"231","article-title":"Social robot tutoring for child second language learning","author":"Kennedy","year":"2016"},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.3389\/frobt.2019.00081","article-title":"A long-term study of young children\u2019s rapport, social emulation, and language learning with a peer-like robot playmate in preschool","volume":"6","author":"Kory-Westlund","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Robotics AI"},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1007\/s12369-014-0227-1","article-title":"Empathic robots for long-term interaction: evaluating social presence, engagement and perceived support in children","volume":"6","author":"Leite","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Soc. Robotics"},{"key":"B23","first-page":"99","article-title":"Comparing models of disengagement in individual and group interactions","author":"Leite","year":"2015"},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1109\/MRA.2016.2546700","article-title":"Learning by teaching a robot: the case of handwriting","volume":"23","author":"Lemaignan","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE RA Mag."},{"key":"B25","first-page":"321","article-title":"Design specifications for a social robot math tutor","author":"Ligthart","year":"2023"},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.1145\/3319502.3374826","article-title":"Design patterns for an interactive storytelling robot to support children\u2019s engagement and agency","author":"Ligthart","year":"2020","journal-title":"ACM\/IEEE Int. Conf. Human-Robot Interact."},{"key":"B27","first-page":"3","article-title":"On measuring engagement level during child-robot interaction in education","volume-title":"Robotics in education. RiE 2019. Advances in intelligent systems and computing","author":"Lytridis","year":"2020"},{"key":"B28","first-page":"600","article-title":"A climate of support: a process-oriented analysis of the impact of rapport on peer tutoring","volume":"1","author":"Madaio","year":"2018","journal-title":"Proc. Int. Conf. Learn. Sci. ICLS"},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1007\/s12369-021-00766-w","article-title":"What if social robots look for productive engagement?","volume":"14","author":"Nasir","year":"","journal-title":"Int. J. Soc. Robotics"},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5281\/zenodo.5576058","article-title":"PE-HRI-temporal: a multimodal temporal dataset in a robot mediated collaborative educational setting","author":"Nasir","year":"","journal-title":"Zenodo"},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5281\/zenodo.10037620","article-title":"Adaptive PE-HRI: data for research on social educational robots driven by a productive engagement framework","author":"Nasir","year":"2023","journal-title":"Zenodo"},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"485","DOI":"10.1007\/s11412-021-09358-2","article-title":"Many are the ways to learn identifying multi-modal behavioral profiles of collaborative learning in constructivist activities","volume":"16","author":"Nasir","year":"","journal-title":"Int. J. Computer-Supported Collab. Learn."},{"key":"B33","first-page":"313","article-title":"When positive perception of the robot has no effect on learning","author":"Nasir","year":"2020"},{"key":"B34","first-page":"1413","article-title":"Efficacy of a \u2018misconceiving\u2019 robot to improve computational thinking in a collaborative problem solving activity: a pilot study","author":"Norman","year":"2022"},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.3389\/frobt.2020.00092","article-title":"Engagement in human-agent interaction: an overview","volume":"7","author":"Oertel","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Robotics AI"},{"key":"B36","first-page":"511","article-title":"Through the (Thin-slice) looking glass: an initial look at rapport and co-construction within peer collaboration","volume":"1","author":"Olsen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Computer-Supported Collab. Learn. Conf. CSCL"},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"875704","DOI":"10.3389\/frobt.2022.875704","article-title":"Children\u2019s learning-by-teaching with a social robot versus a younger child: comparing interactions and tutoring styles","volume":"9","author":"Pareto","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Robotics AI"},{"key":"B38","first-page":"146","article-title":"Give me a break! personalized timing strategies to promote learning in robot-child tutoring","author":"Ramachandran","year":"2017"},{"key":"B39","first-page":"8050","article-title":"Personalized robot tutoring using the assistive tutor POMDP (AT-POMDP)","author":"Ramachandran","year":"2019"},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"420","DOI":"10.1007\/s42979-021-00815-1","article-title":"Deep learning: a comprehensive overview on techniques, taxonomy, applications and research directions","volume":"2","author":"Sarker","year":"2021","journal-title":"SN Comput. Sci."},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.1207\/S1532690XCI1804_2","article-title":"Two wrongs may make a right if they argue together","volume":"18","author":"Schwarz","year":"2000","journal-title":"Cognition Instr."},{"key":"B42","first-page":"92","article-title":"statsmodels: econometric and statistical modeling with python","author":"Seabold","year":"2010"},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"eaat1186","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.aat1186","article-title":"Teaching robots social autonomy from in situ human guidance","volume":"4","author":"Senft","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Robotics"},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.18690\/978-961-286-485-9.46","article-title":"Social robots for reducing mathematics hiatuses in primary education, an exploratory field study","author":"Smakman","year":"2021"},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"542","DOI":"10.1145\/3459990.3465210","article-title":"Cozmonaots: designing an autonomous learning task with social and educational robots","volume-title":"Interaction design and children","author":"Stower","year":"2021"},{"key":"B46","first-page":"1467","article-title":"A game-based approach for evaluating and customizing handwriting training using an autonomous social robot","author":"Tozadore","year":"2022"},{"key":"B47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.3102\/0034654318821286","article-title":"Social robots for language learning: a review","volume":"89","author":"van den Berghe","year":"2019","journal-title":"Rev. Educ. Res."},{"key":"B48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1016\/S1041-6080(96)90015-1","article-title":"The relation between goal orientation and students\u2019 motivational beliefs and self-regulated learning","volume":"8","author":"Wolters","year":"1996","journal-title":"Learn. Individ. Differ."},{"key":"B49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"704","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-25554-5_70","article-title":"The effect of a robot\u2019s social character on children\u2019s task engagement: peer versus tutor","volume-title":"Social robotics","author":"Zaga","year":"2015"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Robotics and AI"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/frobt.2024.1385780\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,22]],"date-time":"2024-08-22T07:29:26Z","timestamp":1724311766000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/frobt.2024.1385780\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,22]]},"references-count":49,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/frobt.2024.1385780"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/frobt.2024.1385780","relation":{},"ISSN":["2296-9144"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2296-9144","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,22]]},"article-number":"1385780"}}