{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,6]],"date-time":"2026-01-06T09:47:01Z","timestamp":1767692821474,"version":"3.48.0"},"reference-count":24,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,6]],"date-time":"2026-01-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1767657600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Robot. AI"],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Head-mounted virtual reality (VR) simulations are increasingly explored in healthcare, particularly in patient education, stroke rehabilitation, and surgical training. While VR-based simulation plays a growing role in robotic-assisted surgery (RAS) training, the implications of head-mounted VR in this context remain underexamined.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Method<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>This prospective, randomised, controlled trial with a single-arm crossover compared two training modalities: a head-mounted VR simulation and a conventional console-based simulation. Participants in the experimental group used head-mounted VR as their primary training method, while the control group trained on a conventional console. Both groups completed a running suture task at baseline, midterm, and final assessments on the surgical console. The primary outcome was the composite score from the final assessment.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Fourteen participants were equally distributed between the two arms. Baseline scores showed no significant differences. A two-way repeated measures ANOVA demonstrated significant overall improvement across assessments (F (1.688, 20.26) = 48.34, p &amp;lt; 0.001, partial \u03b7\n                      <jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup>\n                      = 0.80). No statistical difference was found in final composite scores (mean difference: 8.4 \u00b1 9.45, p = 0.391, Cohen\u2019s d = \u22120.48), midterm scores, or granular kinematic data. However, non-inferiority could not be established as the confidence interval fell outside our pre-set margin. The crossover group required less time (mean difference: 39 \u00b1 9.01 min, p = 0.004) and fewer attempts (mean difference: 8 \u00b1 2.2, p = 0.009) to reach benchmark performance compared to the control group.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Both head-mounted VR and console-based training significantly improved fundamental RAS skills in novices. While our study showed that the VR training shortened the time and attempts required to reach proficiency benchmarks, the small scale of this trial and the breadth of the confidence intervals mean the results should be viewed as preliminary observations. These results provide an initial signal of feasibility that warrants confirmation in larger studies.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/frobt.2025.1616462","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,6]],"date-time":"2026-01-06T09:43:57Z","timestamp":1767692637000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["A feasibility study: a non-inferiority study comparing head-mounted and console-based virtual reality for robotic surgery training"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Kazuho","family":"Kawashima","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Shadi","family":"Ghali","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Justin W.","family":"Collins","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ali","family":"Esmaeili","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1636","DOI":"10.1111\/bcp.13280","article-title":"Defining the noninferiority margin and analysing noninferiority: an overview","volume":"83","author":"Althunian","year":"2017","journal-title":"Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"397","DOI":"10.1007\/s11701-020-01118-y","article-title":"Training novice robot surgeons: proctoring provides same results as simulator-generated guidance","volume":"15","author":"Beulens","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Robotic Surgery"},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7464","DOI":"10.1007\/s00464-023-10221-8","article-title":"Competency assessment for the versius surgical robot: a validity investigation study of a virtual reality simulator-based test","volume":"37","author":"Bjerrum","year":"2023","journal-title":"Surg. Endosc."},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1177\/1553350612458545","article-title":"Enhancing fundamental robot-assisted surgical proficiency by using a portable virtual simulator","volume":"20","author":"Chien","year":"2013","journal-title":"Surg. Innov."},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"992","DOI":"10.1089\/lap.2012.0396","article-title":"Virtual reality training improves da vinci performance: a prospective trial","volume":"23","author":"Cho","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Laparoendosc. Adv. Surg. Tech."},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1007\/s10669-020-09784-x","article-title":"MCDA index tool: an interactive software to develop indices and rankings","volume":"41","author":"Cinelli","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Syst. Decis."},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1645","DOI":"10.1007\/s00345-019-02976-4","article-title":"Training in robotic surgery, replicating the airline industry. How far have we come?","volume":"38","author":"Collins","year":"2020","journal-title":"World J. Urology"},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsurg.2014.09.008","article-title":"General surgery residents' perception of robot-assisted procedures during surgical training","volume":"72","author":"Farivar","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Surg. Educ."},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"Cd006575","DOI":"10.1002\/14651858.CD006575.pub2","article-title":"Virtual reality training for surgical trainees in laparoscopic surgery","author":"Gurusamy","year":"2009","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst. Rev."},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1565","DOI":"10.1007\/s00464-004-9270-6","article-title":"Virtual reality simulator training equals mechanical robotic training in improving robot-assisted basic suturing skills","volume":"20","author":"Halvorsen","year":"2006","journal-title":"Surg. Endosc. Other Interventional Tech."},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1007\/s11701-024-02187-z","article-title":"Virtual reality simulations in robotic surgery training: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"19","author":"Kawashima","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Robot. Surg."},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"719","DOI":"10.1007\/s11701-022-01500-y","article-title":"Systematic review of academic robotic surgery curricula","volume":"17","author":"Khan Mustafa Tamim","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Robotic Surg."},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"Cd008349","DOI":"10.1002\/14651858.CD008349.pub4","article-title":"Virtual reality for stroke rehabilitation","volume":"11","author":"Laver","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst. Rev."},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1181","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jamcollsurg.2013.02.012","article-title":"Virtual reality robotic surgery warm-up improves task performance in a dry laboratory environment: a prospective randomized controlled study","volume":"216","author":"Lendvay","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Surg."},{"key":"B15","first-page":"67","article-title":"Methods for constructing composite indices: one for all or all for one?","volume":"67","author":"Matteo Mazziotta","year":"2013","journal-title":"RIEDS - Rivista Italiana di Econ. Demografia e Statistica - Italian J. Econ. Demogr. Stat. Stud."},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1137","DOI":"10.1089\/end.2019.0541","article-title":"Virtually competent: a comparative analysis of virtual reality and dry-lab robotic simulation training","volume":"199","author":"Raison","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Urology"},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1186\/1745-6215-12-106","article-title":"Through the looking glass: understanding non-inferiority","volume":"12","author":"Schumi","year":"2011","journal-title":"Trials"},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1097\/NNR.0b013e3182741948","article-title":"Composite variables: when and how","volume":"62","author":"Song","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nurs. Res."},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1097\/sih.0000000000000636","article-title":"Virtual reality head-mounted displays in medical education: a systematic review","volume":"18","author":"Turs\u00f8-Finnich","year":"2023","journal-title":"Simul. Healthc."},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.1097\/spv.0b013e3182a09101","article-title":"Robotic virtual reality simulation plus standard robotic orientation versus standard robotic orientation alone: a randomized controlled trial","volume":"19","author":"Vaccaro","year":"2013","journal-title":"Female Pelvic Med. Reconstr. Surg."},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1928","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pec.2022.02.005","article-title":"Virtual reality as a patient education tool in healthcare: a scoping review","volume":"105","author":"van der Kruk","year":"2022","journal-title":"Patient Educ. Couns."},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1126","DOI":"10.1089\/end.2021.0740","article-title":"Improving robotic skills by video review","volume":"36","author":"van der Leun","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Endourology\/Endourological Soc."},{"key":"B23","first-page":"48","article-title":"Virtual and augmented reality-based treatments for phantom limb pain: a systematic review","volume":"19","author":"Vassantachart","year":"2022","journal-title":"Innov. Clin. Neurosci."},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.1007\/s44217-024-00284-7","article-title":"Assessing the need for robotic surgery training in standard medical education: insights from medical students","volume":"3","author":"Vigran","year":"","journal-title":"Discov. Educ."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Robotics and AI"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/frobt.2025.1616462\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,6]],"date-time":"2026-01-06T09:43:58Z","timestamp":1767692638000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/frobt.2025.1616462\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,6]]},"references-count":24,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/frobt.2025.1616462"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/frobt.2025.1616462","relation":{},"ISSN":["2296-9144"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2296-9144","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,6]]},"article-number":"1616462"}}