{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,1]],"date-time":"2026-11-01T03:56:34Z","timestamp":1793505394063,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,28]],"date-time":"2023-06-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1687910400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Virtual Real."],"abstract":"<jats:p>During interaction with objects in Virtual Reality haptic feedback plays a crucial role for creating convincing immersive experiences. Recent work building upon passive haptic feedback has looked towards fabrication processes for designing and creating proxy objects able to communicate objects\u2019 properties and characteristics. However, such approaches remain limited in terms of scalability as for each material a corresponding object needs to be fabricated. To create more flexible 3D-printed proxies, we explore the potential of metamaterials. To this aim, we designed metamaterial structures able to alter their tactile surface properties, e.g., their hardness and roughness, upon lateral compression. In this work, we designed five different metamaterial patterns based on features that are known to affect tactile properties. We evaluated whether our samples were able to successfully convey different levels of roughness and hardness sensations at varying levels of compression. While we found that roughness was significantly affected by compression state, hardness did not seem to follow the same pattern. In a second study, we focused on two metamaterial patterns showing promise for roughness perception and investigated their visuo-haptic perception in Virtual Reality. Here, eight different compression states of our two selected metamaterials were overlaid with six visual material textures. Our results suggest that, especially at low compression states, our metamaterials were the most promising ones to match the textures displayed to the participants. Additionally, when asked which material participants perceived, adjectives, such as \u201cbroken\u201d and \u201cdamaged\u201d were used. This indicates that metamaterial surface textures could be able to simulate different object states. Our results underline that metamaterial design is able to extend the gamut of tactile experiences of 3D-printed surfaces structures, as a single sample is able to reconfigure its haptic sensation through compression.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/frvir.2023.1172381","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,28]],"date-time":"2023-06-28T16:26:06Z","timestamp":1687969566000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":16,"title":["MetaReality: enhancing tactile experiences using actuated 3D-printed metamaterials in Virtual Reality"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"4","author":[{"given":"Martin","family":"Feick","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Donald","family":"Degraen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fabian","family":"Hupperich","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Antonio","family":"Kr\u00fcger","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.1145\/2839462.2839484","article-title":"Snake charmer: Physically enabling virtual objects","volume-title":"Proceedings of the TEI \u201916: Tenth international conference on tangible, embedded, and embodied interaction","author":"Araujo","year":"2016"},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"717","DOI":"10.1145\/2984511.2984526","article-title":"Normaltouch and texturetouch: High-fidelity 3d haptic shape rendering on handheld virtual reality controllers","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 29th annual symposium on user interface software and technology","author":"Benko","year":"2016"},{"key":"B3","first-page":"1175","article-title":"Resized grasping in vr: Estimating thresholds for object discrimination","author":"Bergstr\u00f6m","year":"2019"},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/1778765.1778800","article-title":"Design and fabrication of materials with desired deformation behavior","volume":"29","author":"Bickel","year":"2010","journal-title":"ACM Trans. Graph."},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v061.i06","article-title":"Nbclust: An r package for determining the relevant number of clusters in a data set","volume":"61","author":"Charrad","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Stat. Softw."},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1442-9993.1993.tb00438.x","article-title":"Non-parametric multivariate analyses of changes in community structure","volume":"18","author":"Clarke","year":"1993","journal-title":"Aust. J. Ecol."},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1145\/1166087.1166093","article-title":"Object feature validation using visual and haptic similarity ratings","volume":"3","author":"Cooke","year":"2006","journal-title":"ACM Trans. Appl. Percept."},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1109\/WHC.2013.6548424","article-title":"Generating haptic texture models from unconstrained tool-surface interactions","volume":"2013","author":"Culbertson","year":"2013","journal-title":"World Haptics Conf. (WHC)"},{"key":"B9","first-page":"936","article-title":"Weirding haptics: In-situ prototyping of vibrotactile feedback in virtual reality through vocalization","author":"Degraen","year":""},{"key":"B10","first-page":"954","article-title":"Capturing tactile properties of real surfaces for haptic reproduction","volume-title":"The 34th annual ACM symposium on user interface software and technology","author":"Degraen","year":""},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1145\/3393914.3395870","article-title":"Envisioning haptic design for immersive virtual environments","volume-title":"Companion publication of the 2020 ACM designing interactive systems conference","author":"Degraen","year":"2020"},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3290605.3300479","article-title":"Enhancing texture perception in virtual reality using 3d-printed hair structures","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 2019 CHI conference on human factors in computing systems","author":"Degraen","year":"2019"},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"474","DOI":"10.1016\/S0363-5023(78)80143-9","article-title":"The moving two-point discrimination test: Clinical evaluation of the quickly adapting fiber\/receptor system","volume":"3","author":"Dellon","year":"1978","journal-title":"J. Hand Surg."},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/8466.003.0048","article-title":"Optimal multisensory integration: Assumptions and limits","volume-title":"The new handbook of multisensory processing","author":"Ernst","year":"2012"},{"key":"B15","first-page":"195","article-title":"Tangi: Tangible proxies for embodied object exploration and manipulation in virtual reality","author":"Feick","year":""},{"key":"B16","first-page":"68","article-title":"The virtual reality questionnaire toolkit","volume-title":"Adjunct proceedings of the 33rd annual ACM symposium on user interface software and technology","author":"Feick","year":""},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1145\/3411764.3445456","article-title":"Visuo-haptic illusions for linear translation and stretching using physical proxies in virtual reality","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 2021 CHI conference on human factors in computing systems","author":"Feick","year":"2021"},{"key":"B18","first-page":"97","article-title":"Metamaterials: Characteristics, process and applications","volume":"4","author":"Gangwar","year":"2014","journal-title":"Adv. Electron. Electr. Eng."},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2101380","DOI":"10.1002\/admi.202101380","article-title":"Bending as key mechanism in the tactile perception of fibrillar surfaces","volume":"9","author":"Gedsun","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1063","DOI":"10.1145\/3472749.3474806","article-title":"Metasense: Integrating sensing capabilities into mechanical metamaterial","volume-title":"The 34th annual ACM symposium on user interface software and technology","author":"Gong","year":"2021"},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"923","DOI":"10.1145\/3332165.3347937","article-title":"Tactlets: Adding tactile feedback to 3d objects using custom printed controls","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 32nd annual ACM symposium on user interface software and technology","author":"Groeger","year":"2019"},{"key":"B22","first-page":"265","article-title":"Psychophysical influence on tactual impression by mixed-reality visual stimulation","author":"Iesaki","year":"2008"},{"key":"B23","volume-title":"Passive haptics significantly enhances virtual environments","author":"Insko","year":"2001"},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3173574.3173910","article-title":"Metamaterial textures","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 2018 CHI conference on human factors in computing systems","author":"Ion","year":"2018"},{"key":"B25","volume-title":"Porous materials: Process technology and applications","author":"Ishizaki","year":"2013"},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5772\/8712","article-title":"Sensory properties in fusion of visual\/haptic stimuli using mixed reality","author":"Kitahara","year":"2010","journal-title":"Adv. Haptics"},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2081","DOI":"10.1109\/JPROC.2013.2248691","article-title":"Haptic perception of material properties and implications for applications","volume":"101","author":"Klatzky","year":"2013","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE"},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1162\/pres.18.1.39","article-title":"Simulating haptic feedback using vision: A survey of research and applications of pseudo-haptic feedback","volume":"18","author":"L\u00e9cuyer","year":"2009","journal-title":"Presence Teleoperators Virtual Environ."},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1145\/3411764.3445285","article-title":"Hairtouch: Providing stiffness, roughness and surface height differences using reconfigurable brush hairs on a vr controller","author":"Lee","year":"2021"},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1023\/a:1009669730778","article-title":"Mechanical properties of porous materials","volume":"6","author":"Lu","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Porous Mater."},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1016\/0043-1648(62)90002-9","article-title":"Characterization of surface roughness","volume":"5","author":"Myers","year":"1962","journal-title":"Wear"},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"31067","DOI":"10.1038\/srep31067","article-title":"Shape morphing kirigami mechanical metamaterials","volume":"6","author":"Neville","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1109\/MCG.2021.3097671","article-title":"Propping up virtual reality with haptic proxies","volume":"41","author":"Nilsson","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Comput. Graph. Appl."},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1109\/toh.2012.32","article-title":"Psychophysical dimensions of tactile perception of textures","volume":"6","author":"Okamoto","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Haptics"},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/2897824.2925885","article-title":"An interaction-aware, perceptual model for non-linear elastic objects","volume":"35","author":"Piovar\u010di","year":"2016","journal-title":"ACM Trans. Graph."},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1279","DOI":"10.1109\/TVCG.2015.2459792","article-title":"Softar: Visually manipulating haptic softness perception in spatial augmented reality","volume":"21","author":"Punpongsanon","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Vis. Comput. Graph."},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1109\/MMUL.2006.69","article-title":"The importance of the sense of touch in virtual and real environments","volume":"13","author":"Robles-De-La-Torre","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE Multimed."},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"120473","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.3006440","article-title":"Modifying texture perception with pseudo-haptic feedback for a projected virtual hand interface","volume":"8","author":"Sato","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1145\/3491101.3503734","article-title":"Sustainable haptic design: Improving collaboration, sharing, and reuse in haptic design research","author":"Schneider","year":"2022"},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhcs.2017.04.004","article-title":"Haptic experience design: What hapticians do and where they need help","volume":"107","author":"Schneider","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Human-Computer Stud."},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/2766926","article-title":"Microstructures to control elasticity in 3d printing","volume":"34","author":"Schumacher","year":"2015","journal-title":"ACM Trans. Graph."},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3549","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2009.0138","article-title":"Place illusion and plausibility can lead to realistic behaviour in immersive virtual environments","volume":"364","author":"Slater","year":"2009","journal-title":"Philosophical Trans. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"B43","first-page":"1","article-title":"Pseudo-haptic controls for mid-air finger-based menu interaction","author":"Speicher","year":"2019"},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4758","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-021-24974-0","article-title":"A mechatronic shape display based on auxetic materials","volume":"12","author":"Steed","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1145\/3173574.3173639","article-title":"From pulse trains to \u201dcoloring with vibrations\u201d: Motion mappings for mid-air haptic textures","author":"Strohmeier","year":"2018"},{"key":"B46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1145\/3526114.3558655","article-title":"Designing a hairy haptic display using 3d printed hairs and perforated plates","volume-title":"Adjunct proceedings of the 35th annual ACM symposium on user interface software and technology","author":"Takahashi","year":"2022"},{"key":"B47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"583","DOI":"10.1145\/2807442.2807492","article-title":"Hapticprint: Designing feel aesthetics for digital fabrication","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 28th annual ACM symposium on user interface software and technology","author":"Torres","year":"2015"},{"key":"B48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2171","DOI":"10.1177\/1464420721995858","article-title":"Metamaterials and their applications: An overview","volume":"236","author":"Valipour","year":"2022","journal-title":"Proc. Institution Mech. Eng. Part L J. Mater. Des. Appl."},{"key":"B49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1109\/WHC.2019.8816095","article-title":"Fingertip interaction metrics correlate with visual and haptic perception of real surfaces","author":"Vardar","year":"2019"},{"key":"B50","first-page":"1","article-title":"Haptic revolver: Touch, shear, texture, and shape rendering on a reconfigurable virtual reality controller","author":"Whitmire","year":"2018"},{"key":"B51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1145\/3490149.3501307","article-title":"TactJam: An end-to-end prototyping suite for collaborative design of on-body vibrotactile feedback","author":"Wittchen","year":"2022"},{"key":"B52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"503002","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-6463\/abaced","article-title":"Active metamaterials and metadevices: A review","volume":"53","author":"Xiao","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Phys. D Appl. Phys."},{"key":"B53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1145\/3526113.3545649","article-title":"Reconfigurable elastic metamaterials","author":"Yang","year":"2022"},{"key":"B54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1285","DOI":"10.1109\/TVCG.2017.2656978","article-title":"Shifty: A weight-shifting dynamic passive haptic proxy to enhance object perception in virtual reality","volume":"23","author":"Zenner","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Vis. Comput. Graph."},{"key":"B55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1145\/3290605.3300550","article-title":"Pseudo-haptic weight: Changing the perceived weight of virtual objects by manipulating control-display ratio","author":"Samad","year":"2019"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Virtual Reality"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/frvir.2023.1172381\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,28]],"date-time":"2023-06-28T16:26:21Z","timestamp":1687969581000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/frvir.2023.1172381\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,28]]},"references-count":55,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/frvir.2023.1172381"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/frvir.2023.1172381","relation":{},"ISSN":["2673-4192"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2673-4192","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,28]]},"article-number":"1172381"}}