{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,25]],"date-time":"2026-02-25T09:12:32Z","timestamp":1772010752646,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":58,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,12]],"date-time":"2024-02-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1707696000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Virtual Real."],"abstract":"<jats:p><jats:bold>Introduction:<\/jats:bold> This study explores the graduated perception of apparent social traits in virtual characters by experimental manipulation of perceived affiliation with the aim to validate an existing predictive model in animated whole-body avatars.<\/jats:p><jats:p><jats:bold>Methods:<\/jats:bold> We created a set of 210 animated virtual characters, for which facial features were generated according to a predictive statistical model originally developed for 2D faces. In a first online study, participants (N = 34) rated mute video clips of the characters on the dimensions of trustworthiness, valence, and arousal. In a second study (N = 49), vocal expressions were added to the avatars, with voice recordings manipulated on the dimension of trustworthiness by their speakers.<\/jats:p><jats:p><jats:bold>Results:<\/jats:bold> In study one, as predicted, we found a significant positive linear (<jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic> &amp;lt; 0.001) as well as quadratic (<jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic> &amp;lt; 0.001) trend in trustworthiness ratings. We found a significant negative correlation between mean trustworthiness and arousal (\u03c4 = \u2212.37, p &amp;lt; 0.001), and a positive correlation with valence (\u03c4 = 0.88, p &amp;lt; 0.001). In study two, wefound a significant linear (<jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic> &amp;lt; 0.001), quadratic (<jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic> &amp;lt; 0.001), cubic (<jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic> &amp;lt; 0.001), quartic (<jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic> &amp;lt; 0.001) and quintic (<jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic> = 0.001) trend in trustworthiness ratings. Similarly, to study one, we found a significant negative correlation between mean trustworthiness and arousal (\u03c4 = \u22120.42, <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic> &amp;lt; 0.001) and a positive correlation with valence (\u03c4 = 0.76, <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic> &amp;lt; 0.001).<\/jats:p><jats:p><jats:bold>Discussion:<\/jats:bold> We successfully showed that a multisensory graduation of apparent social traits, originally developed for 2D stimuli, can be applied to virtually animated characters, to create a battery of animated virtual humanoid male characters. These virtual avatars have a higher ecological validity in comparison to their 2D counterparts and allow for a targeted experimental manipulation of perceived trustworthiness. The stimuli could be used for social cognition research in neurotypical and psychiatric populations.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/frvir.2024.1301322","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,12]],"date-time":"2024-02-12T09:49:07Z","timestamp":1707731347000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["To trust or not to trust? Face and voice modulation of virtual avatars"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"5","author":[{"given":"Sebastian","family":"Siehl","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Kornelius","family":"Kammler-S\u00fccker","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Stella","family":"Guldner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Yannick","family":"Janvier","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Rabia","family":"Zohair","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Frauke","family":"Nees","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v067.i01","article-title":"Fitting linear mixed-effects models using lme4","volume":"67","author":"Bates","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Stat. Softw."},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0185651","article-title":"The sound of trustworthiness: acoustic-based modulation of perceived voice personality","volume":"12","author":"Belin","year":"2017","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1145\/3173574.3174234","article-title":"Combating attrition in digital self-improvement programs using avatar customization","author":"Birk","year":"2018"},{"key":"B4","first-page":"341","article-title":"Praat, a system for doing phonetics by computer","volume":"5","author":"Boersma","year":"2001","journal-title":"Glot International"},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/0005-7916(94)90063-9","article-title":"Measuring emotion: the self-assessment manikin and the semantic differential","volume":"25","author":"Bradley","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Behav. Ther. Exp. Psychiatry"},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1177\/1555412009354727","article-title":"From edutainment to serious games: a change in the use of game characteristics","volume":"5","author":"Charsky","year":"2010","journal-title":"Games Cult."},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"576","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2015.00576","article-title":"Is it the real deal? Perception of virtual characters versus humans: an affective cognitive neuroscience perspective","volume":"6","author":"de Borst","year":"2015","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"460","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2003.08.014","article-title":"Multisensory integration, perception and ecological validity","volume":"7","author":"De Gelder","year":"2003","journal-title":"Trends Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/2480741.2480751","article-title":"3D virtual worlds and the metaverse: current status and future possibilities","volume":"45","author":"Dionisio","year":"2013","journal-title":"ACM Comput. Surv."},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1192\/bjpo.bp.115.002147","article-title":"Embodying self-compassion within virtual reality and its effects on patients with depression","volume":"2","author":"Falconer","year":"2016","journal-title":"BJPsych Open"},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-8535.2009.00991.x","article-title":"Using avatars and virtual environments in learning: what do they have to offer?","volume":"41","author":"Falloon","year":"2010","journal-title":"Br. J. Educ. Technol."},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2013.01.004","article-title":"Facial trust appraisal negatively biased in borderline personality disorder","volume":"207","author":"Fertuck","year":"2013","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res."},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2006.11.005","article-title":"Universal dimensions of social cognition: warmth and competence","volume":"11","author":"Fiske","year":"2007","journal-title":"Trends Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2010.11.012","article-title":"Superior \u201ctheory of mind\u201d in borderline personality disorder: an analysis of interaction behavior in a virtual trust game","volume":"187","author":"Franzen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res."},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2393","DOI":"10.1017\/S003329171700040X","article-title":"Virtual reality in the assessment, understanding, and treatment of mental health disorders","volume":"47","author":"Freeman","year":"2017","journal-title":"Psychol. Med."},{"key":"B58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3758\/s13423-023-02333-y","article-title":"Human talkers change their voices to elicit specific trait percepts","author":"Guldner","year":"2023","journal-title":"Psychonomic Bulletin and Review"},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6004","DOI":"10.1093\/cercor\/bhaa175","article-title":"Vocomotor and social brain networks work together to express social traits in voices","volume":"30","author":"Guldner","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cereb. Cortex"},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1186\/s40479-020-00143-5","article-title":"Childhood maltreatment is associated with distrust and negatively biased emotion processing","volume":"8","author":"Hepp","year":"2021","journal-title":"Borderline Personal. Disord. Emot. Dysregulation"},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1007\/s10919-013-0163-z","article-title":"The perception and parameters of intentional voice manipulation","volume":"38","author":"Hughes","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Nonverbal Behav."},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"759","DOI":"10.1038\/77664","article-title":"Domain specificity in face perception","volume":"3","author":"Kanwisher","year":"2000","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1080\/23808985.2020.1792790","article-title":"Does virtual reality help to cut the Gordian knot between ecological validity and experimental control?","volume":"44","author":"Kothgassner","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ann. Int. Commun. Assoc."},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tins.2018.10.004","article-title":"Toward a model of interpersonal trust drawn from neuroscience, psychology, and economics","volume":"42","author":"Krueger","year":"2019","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci."},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"912","DOI":"10.1037\/emo0000282","article-title":"Similar representations of emotions across faces and voices","volume":"17","author":"Kuhn","year":"2017","journal-title":"Emotion"},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.18637\/JSS.V082.I13","article-title":"lmerTest package: tests in linear mixed effects models","volume":"82","author":"Kuznetsova","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Stat. Softw."},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3389\/frvir.2021.786665","article-title":"Social interaction with agents and avatars in immersive virtual environments: a survey","volume":"2","author":"Kyrlitsias","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Virtual Real"},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.3758\/s13423-018-1497-7","article-title":"Flexible voices: identity perception from variable vocal signals","volume":"26","author":"Lavan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Psychon. Bull. Rev."},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v069.i01","article-title":"Least-squares means: the R package lsmeans","volume":"69","author":"Lenth","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Stat. Softw."},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20200386","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2020.0386","article-title":"Voice modulation: from origin and mechanism to social impact","volume":"376","author":"Leong\u00f3mez","year":"2021","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1097\/HRP.0000000000000138","article-title":"The use of virtual reality technology in the treatment of anxiety and other psychiatric disorders","volume":"25","author":"Maples-Keller","year":"2017","journal-title":"Harv. Rev. Psychiatry"},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e90779","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0090779","article-title":"How do you say \u201chello\u201d? Personality impressions from brief novel voices","volume":"9","author":"McAleer","year":"2014","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1109\/MRA.2012.2192811","article-title":"The uncanny valley [from the field]","volume":"19","author":"Mori","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Robot. Autom. Mag."},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"655","DOI":"10.1111\/jcpp.13503","article-title":"Trust and childhood maltreatment: evidence of bias in appraisal of unfamiliar faces","volume":"63","author":"Neil","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Child. Psychol. Psychiatry Allied Discip."},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1038\/s41562-019-0782-4","article-title":"Economic status cues from clothes affect perceived competence from faces","volume":"4","author":"Oh","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Hum. Behav."},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1007\/s10919-009-0082-1","article-title":"Elected in 100 milliseconds: appearance-based trait inferences and voting","volume":"34","author":"Olivola","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Nonverbal Behav."},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11087","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0805664105","article-title":"The functional basis of face evaluation","volume":"105","author":"Oosterhof","year":"2008","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A."},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1111\/bjop.12290","article-title":"Why and how to use virtual reality to study human social interaction: the challenges of exploring a new research landscape","volume":"109","author":"Pan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Br. J. Psychol."},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0189078","article-title":"The impact of self-avatars on trust and collaboration in shared virtual environments","volume":"12","author":"Pan","year":"2017","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"660","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2015.00660","article-title":"Virtual reality for enhanced ecological validity and experimental control in the clinical, affective and social neurosciences","volume":"9","author":"Parsons","year":"2015","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2016.01.002","article-title":"Voice modulation: a window into the origins of human vocal control?","volume":"20","author":"Pisanski","year":"2016","journal-title":"Trends Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"870","DOI":"10.1134\/S0005117918050089","article-title":"Physiological avatar technology with optimal planning of the training process in cyclic sports","volume":"79","author":"Proshin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Autom. Remote Control"},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"495","DOI":"10.1038\/s41583-019-0179-4","article-title":"Using second-person neuroscience to elucidate the mechanisms of social interaction","volume":"20","author":"Redcay","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"476","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2018.10.006","article-title":"Navigating social space","volume":"100","author":"Schafer","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20150081","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2015.0081","article-title":"Towards a second-person neuropsychiatry","volume":"371","author":"Schilbach","year":"2016","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1207\/S15327078IN0204_02","article-title":"What is ecological validity? A dimensional analysis","volume":"2","author":"Schmuckler","year":"2001","journal-title":"Infancy"},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"990","DOI":"10.1177\/1948550617732388","article-title":"Facial first impressions of partner preference traits: trustworthiness, status, and attractiveness","volume":"9","author":"South Palomares","year":"2018","journal-title":"Soc. Psychol. Personal. Sci."},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2015.06.011","article-title":"A map for social navigation in the human brain","volume":"87","author":"Tavares","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"B46","unstructured":"R: a language and environment for statistical computing\n            TeamR.\n          2013"},{"key":"B47","volume-title":"Face value: the irresistible influence of first impressions","author":"Todorov","year":"2017"},{"key":"B48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"724","DOI":"10.1037\/a0032335","article-title":"Validation of data-driven computational models of social perception of faces","volume":"13","author":"Todorov","year":"2013","journal-title":"Emotion"},{"key":"B49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e12805","DOI":"10.2196\/12805","article-title":"Rehabilitation, the great absentee of virtual coaching in medical care: scoping review","volume":"21","author":"Tropea","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Med. Internet Res."},{"key":"B50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v077.b02","article-title":"ggplot2 - elegant graphics for data analysis (2nd edition)","volume":"77","author":"Wickham","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Stat. Softw."},{"key":"B51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1686","DOI":"10.21105\/joss.01686","article-title":"Welcome to the tidyverse","volume":"4","author":"Wickham","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Open Source Softw."},{"key":"B52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2191","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2013.281053","article-title":"World Medical Association Declaration of Helsinki: ethical principles for medical research involving human subjects","volume":"310","author":"World Medical Association","year":"2013","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"B53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1468-2958.2007.00299.x","article-title":"The proteus effect: the effect of transformed self-representation on behavior","volume":"33","author":"Yee","year":"2007","journal-title":"Hum. Commun. Res."},{"key":"B54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1177\/0963721416683996","article-title":"First impressions from faces","volume":"26","author":"Zebrowitz","year":"","journal-title":"Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"B55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1177\/0963721416683996","article-title":"First impressions from faces","volume":"26","author":"Zebrowitz","year":"","journal-title":"Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"B56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1497","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1751-9004.2008.00109.x","article-title":"Social psychological face perception: why appearance matters","volume":"2","author":"Zebrowitz","year":"2008","journal-title":"Soc. Personal. Psychol. Compass"},{"key":"B57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1773","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-05601-4","article-title":"A specific brain network for a social map in the human brain","volume":"12","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Virtual Reality"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/frvir.2024.1301322\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,12]],"date-time":"2024-02-12T09:49:12Z","timestamp":1707731352000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/frvir.2024.1301322\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,12]]},"references-count":58,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/frvir.2024.1301322"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/frvir.2024.1301322","relation":{},"ISSN":["2673-4192"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2673-4192","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,12]]},"article-number":"1301322"}}