{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,12]],"date-time":"2026-09-12T03:37:51Z","timestamp":1789184271149,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":54,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,9]],"date-time":"2023-06-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1686268800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R41 NS119134-01"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R41 NS119134-01"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol."],"abstract":"<jats:p><jats:bold>Introduction:<\/jats:bold> Concern has grown over the potential long-term effects of repeated head impacts and concussions in American football. Recent advances in impact engineering have yielded the development of soft, collapsible, liquid shock absorbers, which have demonstrated the ability to dramatically attenuate impact forces relative to existing helmet shock absorbers.<\/jats:p><jats:p><jats:bold>Methods:<\/jats:bold> To further explore how liquid shock absorbers can improve the efficacy of an American football helmet, we developed and optimized a finite element (FE) helmet model including 21 liquid shock absorbers spread out throughout the helmet. Using FE models of an anthropomorphic test headform and linear impactor, a previously published impact test protocol representative of concussive National Football League impacts (six impact locations, three velocities) was performed on the liquid FE helmet model and four existing FE helmet models. We also evaluated the helmets at three lower impact velocities representative of subconcussive football impacts. Head kinematics were recorded for each impact and used to compute the Head Acceleration Response Metric (HARM), a metric factoring in both linear and angular head kinematics and used to evaluate helmet performance. The head kinematics were also input to a FE model of the head and brain to calculate the resulting brain strain from each impact.<\/jats:p><jats:p><jats:bold>Results:<\/jats:bold> The liquid helmet model yielded the lowest value of HARM at 33 of the 36 impact conditions, offering an average 33.0% (range: \u221237.5% to 56.0%) and 32.0% (range: \u22122.2% to 50.5%) reduction over the existing helmet models at each impact condition in the subconcussive and concussive tests, respectively. The liquid helmet had a Helmet Performance Score (calculated using a summation of HARM values weighted based on injury incidence data) of 0.71, compared to scores ranging from 1.07 \u2013 1.21 from the other four FE helmet models. Resulting brain strains were also lower in the liquid helmet.<\/jats:p><jats:p><jats:bold>Discussion:<\/jats:bold> The results of this study demonstrate the promising ability of liquid shock absorbers to improve helmet safety performance and encourage the development of physical prototypes of helmets featuring this technology. The implications of the observed reductions on brain injury risk are discussed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2023.1160387","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,9]],"date-time":"2023-06-09T04:20:15Z","timestamp":1686284415000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["Finite element evaluation of an American football helmet featuring liquid shock absorbers for protecting against concussive and subconcussive head impacts"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Nicholas J.","family":"Cecchi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hossein","family":"Vahid Alizadeh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yuzhe","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"David B.","family":"Camarillo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2747","DOI":"10.1007\/s10439-021-02842-8","article-title":"Laboratory evaluation of shell add-on products for American football helmets for professional linemen","volume":"49","author":"Bailey","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ann. 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