{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,8]],"date-time":"2026-09-08T19:31:30Z","timestamp":1788895890862,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":60,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,18]],"date-time":"2024-09-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1726617600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Traumatic injuries to the thorax are a common occurrence, and given the disparity in outcomes, injury risk is non-uniformly distributed within the population. Rib cage geometry, in conjunction with well-established biomechanical characteristics, is thought to influence injury tolerance, but quantifiable descriptions of adult rib cage shape as a whole are lacking. Here, we develop an automated pipeline to extract whole rib cage measurements from a large population and produce distributions of these measurements to assess variability in rib cage shape. Ten measurements of whole rib cage shape were collected from 1,719 individuals aged 25\u201345\u00a0years old including angular, linear, areal, and volumetric measures. The resulting pipeline produced measurements with a mean percent difference to manually collected measurements of 1.7% \u00b1 1.6%, and the whole process takes 30\u00a0s per scan. Each measurement followed a normal distribution with a maximum absolute skew value of 0.43 and a maximum absolute excess kurtosis value of 0.6. Significant differences were found between the sexes (<jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic> &amp;lt; 0.001) in all except angular measures. Multivariate regression revealed that demographic predictors explain 29%\u201368% of the variance in the data. The angular measurements had the three lowest R<jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup> values and were also the only three to have little correlation with subject stature. Unlike other measures, rib cage height had a negative correlation with BMI. Stature was the dominant demographic factor in predicting rib cage height, coronal area, sagittal area, and volume. Subject weight was the dominant demographic factor for rib cage width, depth, axial area, and angular measurements. Age was minimally important in this cohort of adults from a narrow age range. Individuals of similar height and weight had average rib cage measurements near the regression predictions, but the range of values across all subjects encompassed a large portion of their respective distributions. Our findings characterize the variability in adult rib cage geometry, including the variation within narrow demographic criteria. In future work, these can be integrated into computer aided engineering workflows to assess the influence of whole rib cage shape on the biomechanics of the adult human thorax.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2024.1432911","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,18]],"date-time":"2024-09-18T04:46:56Z","timestamp":1726634816000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Holistic shape variation of the rib cage in an adult population"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Andrea","family":"Robinson","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bowen","family":"Zheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"suffix":"III","given":"B. Wade","family":"von Kleeck","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Josh","family":"Tan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"F. Scott","family":"Gayzik","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.4271\/2018-22-0004","article-title":"Sources of variability in structural bending response of pediatric and adult human ribs in dynamic frontal impacts","volume":"62","author":"Agnew","year":"2018","journal-title":"Stapp Car Crash J."},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.5603\/fm.a2018.0002","article-title":"Evaluation of the morphological characteristic and sex differences of sternum by multi-detector computed tomography","volume":"77","author":"Ate\u015fo\u011flu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Folia Morphol. Warsz."},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0268202","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0268202","article-title":"Road traffic accident-related thoracic trauma: epidemiology, injury pattern, outcome, and impact on mortality\u2014a multicenter observational study","volume":"17","author":"Benhamed","year":"2022","journal-title":"PLOS ONE"},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"884","DOI":"10.1016\/j.injury.2009.01.105","article-title":"Staircase falls: high-risk groups and injury characteristics in 464 patients","volume":"40","author":"Boele van Hensbroek","year":"2009","journal-title":"Injury"},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2368","DOI":"10.2105\/ajph.2011.300275","article-title":"Vulnerability of female drivers involved in motor vehicle crashes: an analysis of US population at risk","volume":"101","author":"Bose","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Public Health"},{"key":"B6","article-title":"dicom2nifti, icometrix","author":"Brys","year":""},{"key":"B7","volume-title":"Adult obesity prevalence maps","year":"2023"},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1301","DOI":"10.1007\/s00198-008-0572-8","article-title":"Hip axis length variation: its correlation with anthropometric measurements in women from three ethnic groups","volume":"19","author":"Clark","year":"2008","journal-title":"Osteoporos. Int. a J. established as result Coop. between Eur. Found. Osteoporos. Natl. Osteoporos. Found. U. S. A."},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"610","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2007.08.016","article-title":"The influence of body mass index on thoracic injuries in frontal impacts","volume":"40","author":"Cormier","year":"2008","journal-title":"Accid. Analysis & Prev."},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"031007","DOI":"10.1115\/1.4048644","article-title":"Assessment of thorax finite element model response for behind armor blunt trauma impact loading using an epidemiological database","volume":"143","author":"Cronin","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Biomechanical Eng."},{"key":"B11","unstructured":""},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cjtee.2020.04.003","article-title":"Blunt trauma related chest wall and pulmonary injuries: an overview","volume":"23","author":"Dogrul","year":"2020","journal-title":"Chin. J. Traumatol."},{"key":"B13","volume-title":"Thoracic trauma. StatPearls. Treasure island (FL), StatPearls publishing copyright \u00a9 2023","author":"Edgecombe","year":"2023"},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1323","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mri.2012.05.001","article-title":"3D slicer as an image computing platform for the quantitative imaging network","volume":"30","author":"Fedorov","year":"2012","journal-title":"Magn. Reson Imaging"},{"key":"B15","article-title":"The effect of varying enclosed area and age-adjusted cortical bone properties on the structural response of the rib: a simulation study","author":"Fleischmann","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proc. IRCOBI Eur. Conf"},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1837","DOI":"10.1002\/jbmr.3804","article-title":"Explicit finite element models accurately predict subject-specific and velocity-dependent kinetics of sideways fall impact","volume":"34","author":"Fleps","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Bone Mineral Res."},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0032","DOI":"10.2106\/jbjs.st.19.00032","article-title":"Surgical stabilization of rib fractures: indications, techniques, and pitfalls","volume":"10","author":"Fokin","year":"2020","journal-title":"JBJS Essent. Surg. Tech."},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"607","DOI":"10.1080\/15389588.2019.1630825","article-title":"Automobile injury trends in the contemporary fleet: belted occupants in frontal collisions","volume":"20","author":"Forman","year":"2019","journal-title":"Traffic Inj. Prev."},{"key":"B19","article-title":"Development of the global human body models consortium mid-sized male full body model","author":"Gayzik","year":"2011"},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1545","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2008.02.006","article-title":"Quantification of age-related shape change of the human rib cage through geometric morphometrics","volume":"41","author":"Gayzik","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Biomech."},{"key":"B21","volume-title":"Performance of the obese GHBMC models in the sled and belt pull test conditions","author":"Gepner","year":"2018"},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v017.i01","article-title":"Relative importance for linear REgression in R: the package relaimpo","volume":"17","author":"Groemping","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Stat. Softw."},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2227","DOI":"10.1007\/s10237-020-01335-2","article-title":"Comparing FE human body model rib geometry to population data","volume":"19","author":"Holcombe","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biomechanics Model. Mechanobiol."},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2995","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2016.07.021","article-title":"Modeling female and male rib geometry with logarithmic spirals","volume":"49","author":"Holcombe","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Biomechanics"},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1111\/joa.12632","article-title":"The effect of age and demographics on rib shape","volume":"231","author":"Holcombe","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Anat."},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S161","DOI":"10.1080\/15389588.2020.1829915","article-title":"Development of chest deflection injury risk curve in oblique frontal small female PMHS sled tests","volume":"21","author":"Humm","year":"2020","journal-title":"Traffic Inj. Prev."},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S44","DOI":"10.1080\/15389588.2021.1977928","article-title":"Deflection-based parametric survival analysis side impact chest injury risk curves AIS 2015","volume":"22","author":"Humm","year":"2021","journal-title":"Traffic Inj. Prev."},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"918904","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2022.918904","article-title":"Hello, world! VIVA+: a human body model lineup to evaluate sex-differences in crash protection","volume":"10","author":"John","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol."},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1080\/15389588.2022.2147789","article-title":"Comparison of small female PMHS thoracic responses to scaled response corridors in a frontal hub impact","volume":"24","author":"Kang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Traffic Inj. Prev."},{"key":"B30","first-page":"201","volume-title":"Development of human\u2010body model THUMS version 6 containing muscle controllers and application to injury analysis in frontal collision after brake deceleration","author":"Kato","year":"2018"},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2141","DOI":"10.1007\/s10439-011-0311-8","article-title":"Reducing chest injuries in automobile collisions: rib fracture timing and implications for thoracic injury criteria","volume":"39","author":"Kemper","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ann. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.4271\/2005-22-0011","article-title":"Structural and material changes in the aging thorax and their role in crash protection for older occupants","volume":"49","author":"Kent","year":"2005","journal-title":"Stapp Car Crash J."},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.4271\/2005-22-0011","article-title":"Structural and material changes in the aging thorax and their role in crash protection for older occupants","volume":"49","author":"Kent","year":"2005","journal-title":"Stapp Car Crash J."},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e22119","DOI":"10.7759\/cureus.22119","article-title":"Body mass index (BMI): a screening tool analysis","volume":"14","author":"Khanna","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.5395\/rde.2013.38.1.52","article-title":"Statistical notes for clinical researchers: assessing normal distribution (2) using skewness and kurtosis","volume":"38","author":"Kim","year":"2013","journal-title":"Restor. Dent. Endod."},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"111007","DOI":"10.1115\/1.4025329","article-title":"Characterization of the centroidal geometry of human ribs","volume":"135","author":"Kindig","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Biomechanical Eng."},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"741187","DOI":"10.4271\/741187","article-title":"Impact tolerance and response of the human thorax II","author":"Kroell","year":"1974","journal-title":"SAE Int."},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1154272","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2023.1154272","article-title":"Influences of human thorax variability on population rib fracture risk prediction using human body models","volume":"11","author":"Larsson","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol."},{"key":"B39","volume-title":"Influence of individual ribcage shape variability on occupant rib fracture risk","author":"Larsson","year":"2022"},{"key":"B40","first-page":"856","volume-title":"New biofidelity targets for the thorax of a 50th percentile adult male in frontal impact","author":"Lebarb\u00e9","year":"2012"},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7357","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-64482-7","article-title":"Numerical investigation of the sternoclavicular joint modeling technique for improving the surgical treatment of pectus excavatum","volume":"10","author":"Lim","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1155\/2020\/8858686","article-title":"Influence of rib cage on static characteristics of scoliotic spine","volume":"2020","author":"Lin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Appl. Bionics Biomech."},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107211","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2023.107211","article-title":"Characterizing thoracic morphology variation to develop representative 3D models for applications in chest trauma","volume":"163","author":"Lynch","year":"2023","journal-title":"Comput. Biol. Med."},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2015.08.003","article-title":"Construction and evaluation of thoracic injury risk curves for a finite element human body model in frontal car crashes","volume":"85","author":"Mendoza-Vazquez","year":"2015","journal-title":"Accid. Analysis & Prev."},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forsciint.2016.10.009","article-title":"Active numerical model of human body for reconstruction of falls from height","volume":"270","author":"Milanowicz","year":"2017","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int."},{"key":"B46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1002\/oby.20963","article-title":"Regional disparities in obesity prevalence in the United States: a spatial regime analysis","volume":"23","author":"Myers","year":"2015","journal-title":"Obes. (Silver Spring)"},{"key":"B47","unstructured":"2013-20142014"},{"key":"B48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1127","DOI":"10.1097\/01.ta.0000231779.99416.ee","article-title":"Assessing behind armor blunt trauma in accordance with the national institute of justice standard for personal body armor protection using finite element modeling","volume":"62","author":"Roberts","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Trauma Acute Care Surg."},{"key":"B49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107182","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2023.107182","article-title":"Development and preliminary validation of computationally efficient and detailed 50th percentile female human body models","volume":"190","author":"Robinson","year":"2023","journal-title":"Accid. Analysis & Prev."},{"key":"B50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1016\/0021-9290(74)90023-2","article-title":"Force-deformation properties of human ribs","volume":"7","author":"Schultz","year":"1974","journal-title":"J. Biomechanics"},{"key":"B51","first-page":"43","article-title":"Morphometric analysis of the sternum","volume":"30","author":"Selthofer","year":"2006","journal-title":"Coll. Antropol."},{"key":"B52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1280","DOI":"10.1080\/10255842.2014.900544","article-title":"Effects of obesity on occupant responses in frontal crashes: a simulation analysis using human body models","volume":"18","author":"Shi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Comput. Methods Biomech. Biomed. Engin"},{"key":"B53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1016\/s1010-7940(03)00256-2","article-title":"A comprehensive analysis of traumatic rib fractures: morbidity, mortality and management","volume":"24","author":"Sirmali","year":"2003","journal-title":"Eur. J. Cardiothorac. Surg."},{"key":"B54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e3585","DOI":"10.1002\/cnm.3585","article-title":"Biomechanical response of human rib cage to cardiopulmonary resuscitation maneuvers: effects of the compression location","volume":"38","author":"Suazo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Numer. Methods Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"B55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"628","DOI":"10.1148\/rg.2017160100","article-title":"Traumatic rib injury: patterns, imaging pitfalls, complications, and treatment","volume":"37","author":"Talbot","year":"2017","journal-title":"RadioGraphics"},{"key":"B56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.4271\/2014-22-0013","article-title":"Application of radial basis function methods in the development of a 95th percentile male seated FEA model","volume":"58","author":"Vavalle","year":"2014","journal-title":"Stapp Car Crash J."},{"key":"B57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2791","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2016.06.020","article-title":"A parametric ribcage geometry model accounting for variations among the adult population","volume":"49","author":"Wang","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Biomechanics"},{"key":"B58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e230024","DOI":"10.1148\/ryai.230024","article-title":"TotalSegmentator: robust segmentation of 104 anatomic structures in CT images","volume":"5","author":"Wasserthal","year":"2023","journal-title":"Radiol. Artif. Intell."},{"key":"B59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.1111\/joa.12203","article-title":"Morphometric analysis of variation in the ribs with age and sex","volume":"225","author":"Weaver","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Anat."},{"key":"B60","first-page":"3832850","article-title":"Development and validation of dummies and human models used in crash test","volume-title":"Applied bionics and biomechanics","author":"Xu","year":"2018"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fbioe.2024.1432911\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,18]],"date-time":"2024-09-18T04:47:01Z","timestamp":1726634821000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fbioe.2024.1432911\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,18]]},"references-count":60,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fbioe.2024.1432911"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fbioe.2024.1432911","relation":{},"ISSN":["2296-4185"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2296-4185","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,18]]},"article-number":"1432911"}}