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Bioeng. Biotechnol."],"abstract":"<jats:sec><jats:title>Objectives<\/jats:title><jats:p>Accurate segmentation of craniomaxillofacial (CMF) structures and individual teeth is essential for advancing computer-assisted CMF surgery. This study developed CMF-ELSeg, a novel fully automatic multi-structure segmentation model based on deep ensemble learning.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>A total of 143 CMF computed tomography (CT) scans were retrospectively collected and manually annotated by experts for model training and validation. Three 3D U-Net\u2013based deep learning models (V-Net, nnU-Net, and 3D UX-Net) were benchmarked. CMF-ELSeg employed a coarse-to-fine cascaded architecture and an ensemble approach to integrate the strengths of these models. Segmentation performance was evaluated using Dice score and Intersection over Union (IoU) by comparing model predictions to ground truth annotations. Clinical feasibility was assessed through qualitative and quantitative analyses.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>In coarse segmentation of the upper skull, mandible, cervical vertebra, and pharyngeal cavity, 3D UX-Net and nnU-Net achieved Dice scores above 0.96 and IoU above 0.93. For fine segmentation and classification of individual teeth, the cascaded 3D UX-Net performed best. CMF-ELSeg improved Dice scores by 3%\u20135% over individual models for facial soft tissue, upper skull, mandible, cervical vertebra, and pharyngeal cavity segmentation, and maintained high accuracy Dice &amp;gt; 0.94 for most teeth. Clinical evaluation confirmed that CMF-ELSeg performed reliably in patients with skeletal malocclusion, fractures, and fibrous dysplasia.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title><jats:p>CMF-ELSeg provides high-precision segmentation of CMF structures and teeth by leveraging multiple models, serving as a practical tool for clinical applications and enhancing patient-specific treatment planning in CMF surgery.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2025.1580502","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,8]],"date-time":"2025-05-08T04:11:12Z","timestamp":1746677472000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Deep ensemble learning-driven fully automated multi-structure segmentation for precision craniomaxillofacial surgery"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Jiahao","family":"Bao","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zongcai","family":"Tan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yifeng","family":"Sun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xinyu","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Huazhen","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Weiyi","family":"Cui","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yang","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mengjia","family":"Cheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yiming","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Congshuang","family":"Ku","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yuen Ka","family":"Ho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jiayi","family":"Zhu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Linfeng","family":"Fan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dahong","family":"Qian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shunyao","family":"Shen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yaofeng","family":"Wen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hongbo","family":"Yu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1186\/s13005-020-00250-2","article-title":"Accuracy of virtual planning in orthognathic surgery: a systematic review","volume":"16","author":"Alkhayer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Head and Face Med."},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"809","DOI":"10.1177\/00220345241253186","article-title":"Deep learning-based facial and skeletal transformations for surgical planning","volume":"103","author":"Bao","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. 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