{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,31]],"date-time":"2026-03-31T07:04:09Z","timestamp":1774940649630,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":66,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,31]],"date-time":"2026-03-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1774915200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      <jats:italic>Spirulina maxima<\/jats:italic>\n                      (Sm), a blue-green microalgae, is well known for its rich nutritional composition, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory properties. In this study, we found that small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) isolated from\n                      <jats:italic>Sm<\/jats:italic>\n                      exhibit antifibrotic activity.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      <jats:italic>Sm<\/jats:italic>\n                      derived sEVs (\n                      <jats:italic>Sm<\/jats:italic>\n                      _sEV) were purified from the Sm culture medium using tangential flow filtration (TFF), followed by size-exclusion chromatography (SEC). Characterization of the sEVs was performed using nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), immunogold TEM, surface-enhanced IR spectroscopy (SEIRS), and flow cytometry (FC). Internalization of DiI-labeled sEVs by human primary peritoneal mesothelial cells (P-MCs) and peritoneal fibroblasts (p-FBs) was examined using fluorescence microscopy. The effect of sEVs on mesenchymal transition of P-MCs and activation of P-FBs was investigated by immunofluorescent staining, MTT cell-proliferation, and Sirius Red collagen accumulation assays, respectively. The antifibrotic relevance of\n                      <jats:italic>Sm<\/jats:italic>\n                      _sEV was further investigated in a chlorhexidine digluconate (CG)-induced mouse model of peritoneal fibrosis.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      The isolated\n                      <jats:italic>Sm<\/jats:italic>\n                      _sEV exhibited a spherical morphology, with a size range of 150.0 \u00b1 67.6 nm, and the protein-to-lipid ratio (P\/L_spectr) was 2.27 \u00b1 0.07. The sEVs cargo contained Parkinson\u2019s disease protein 7 (PARK7), and heat shock protein 70 (HSP70). DiI-labeled sEVs were successfully internalized by both P-MCs and P-FBs and inhibited TGF-\u03b2-induced mesenchymal transition in P-MCs and the collagen production and PDGF-B-induced proliferation in P-FBs.\n                      <jats:italic>In vivo<\/jats:italic>\n                      , intraperitoneal administration of\n                      <jats:italic>Sm<\/jats:italic>\n                      _sEVs reduced CG-induced submesothelial thickening, fibronectin, and collagen type I alpha 1 immunopositivity, and increased cytokeratin 18, immunopositivity in the mesothelial layer.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Discussion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      These findings highlight the antifibrotic effect of\n                      <jats:italic>Sm<\/jats:italic>\n                      _sEV and support their further investigation in the context of fibrosis.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2026.1761403","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,31]],"date-time":"2026-03-31T05:32:53Z","timestamp":1774935173000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Anti-fibrotic effect of Spirulina maxima-derived extracellular vesicles: possible role of PARK7 and HSP70 chaperones"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Be\u00e1ta","family":"Szebeni","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Center, MTA Center of Excellence, Semmelweis University","place":["Budapest, Hungary"]},{"name":"HUN-REN-SU Pediatrics and Nephrology Research Group","place":["Budapest, Hungary"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"M\u00e1ria","family":"Bern\u00e1th","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Center, MTA Center of Excellence, Semmelweis University","place":["Budapest, Hungary"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"P\u00e9ter","family":"Bokrossy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Center, MTA Center of Excellence, Semmelweis University","place":["Budapest, Hungary"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Domonkos","family":"Pap","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Center, MTA Center of Excellence, Semmelweis University","place":["Budapest, Hungary"]},{"name":"HUN-REN-SU Pediatrics and Nephrology Research Group","place":["Budapest, Hungary"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zolt\u00e1n","family":"Moln\u00e1r","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Plant Sciences, Albert K\u00e1zm\u00e9r Faculty of Agricultural and Food Sciences in Mosonmagyar\u00f3v\u00e1r, Sz\u00e9chenyi Istv\u00e1n University","place":["Mosonmagyar\u00f3v\u00e1r, Hungary"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Tam\u00e1s","family":"M\u00e9sz\u00e1ros","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Translational Medicine, Nanomedicine Research and Education Center, Semmelweis University","place":["Budapest, Hungary"]},{"name":"SeroScience Ltd.","place":["Budapest, Hungary"]},{"name":"Heart and Vascular Center, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University","place":["Budapest, Hungary"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Dorina","family":"Lenzinger","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Genetics, Cell - 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