{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,11]],"date-time":"2026-06-11T06:01:33Z","timestamp":1781157693409,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,11]],"date-time":"2026-06-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1781136000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003500","name":"Universit\u00e0 Degli Studi di Padova","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003500","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Viscosupplementation is a treatment commonly used to restore joint lubrication in moderate osteoarthritis, although the effect of different intra-articular lubricants in friction reduction remains to be fully understood and tested\n                      <jats:italic>in vitro<\/jats:italic>\n                      . The aim of this study was to develop an artificial cartilage that mimicked the mechanical and tribological behavior of human articular cartilage, enabling\n                      <jats:italic>in vitro<\/jats:italic>\n                      evaluation of novel hyaluronic acid (HA)-based gels for viscosupplementation.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Poly (vinyl alcohol) (PVA) hydrogels were evaluated by comparing different polymer concentrations (15%, 20%, and 25%) in water to identify which most closely replicates the compressive and frictional behavior of native articular cartilage.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results and Discussion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Scanning electron microscopy showed that higher polymer concentrations reduce pore size and increase surface irregularities, reflecting a denser network. Compressive testing indicated that the hydrogel stiffness rises progressively with polymer concentration, yielding compressive moduli within the physiological range of human cartilage. Tribological tests, performed using phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) as a lubricant under relevant loads and motion frequencies, revealed that friction also increases with polymer content. Among the tested concentration, 20% PVA hydrogel offers the most favorable combination of stiffness and lubricity, with a compressive modulus of approximately 300 kPa and a friction coefficient of about 0.14. Additional tests were performed by using four different HA-based viscosupplementation gels as lubricants. In all cases, a pronounced reduction in friction was observed, with coefficients decreasing to values between 0.02 and 0.06. In addition, microscopic surface analysis after testing showed a reduction in surface wear, confirming the protective and lubricating effect of HA-based gels. Overall, these findings indicated that PVA hydrogels, particularly at 20% concentration, can effectively be adopted as a reproducible and physiologically relevant equivalent of articular cartilage.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2026.1770162","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,11]],"date-time":"2026-06-11T05:48:53Z","timestamp":1781156933000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Development and tribological characterization of polyvinyl alcohol-based artificial cartilage for in vitro testing of viscosupplementation gels"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Marta","family":"Confalonieri","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Padova","place":["Padova, Italy"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lucrezia","family":"Bettella","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Padova","place":["Padova, Italy"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Silvia","family":"Barbon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurosciences, Section of Human Anatomy, University of Padova","place":["Padova, Italy"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Elena","family":"Stocco","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurosciences, Section of Human Anatomy, University of Padova","place":["Padova, Italy"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Silvia","family":"Spadoni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Padova","place":["Padova, Italy"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Daniele","family":"Pacchioni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IBSA Farmaceutici Italia S.r.l.","place":["Lodi, Italy"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gabriele","family":"Vecchi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IBSA Farmaceutici Italia S.r.l.","place":["Lodi, Italy"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andrea","family":"Porzionato","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurosciences, Section of Human Anatomy, University of Padova","place":["Padova, Italy"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Silvia","family":"Todros","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Padova","place":["Padova, Italy"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Piero G.","family":"Pavan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Padova","place":["Padova, Italy"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"110974","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eurpolymj.2021.110974","article-title":"Freeze\/Thawed polyvinyl alcohol hydrogels: present, past and future","volume":"164","author":"Adelnia","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eur. Polym. J."},{"key":"B2","first-page":"63","article-title":"The physical properties of synovial fluid and the special role of hyaluronic acid","volume-title":"Disorders of the Knee","author":"Balazs","year":"1974"},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"730","DOI":"10.3390\/pr9050730","article-title":"Enhanced biomechanical properties of polyvinyl alcohol-based hybrid scaffolds for cartilage tissue engineering","volume":"9","author":"Barbon","year":"2021","journal-title":"Processes"},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1243\/095441105X69060","article-title":"Influence of hyaluronic acid on the time-dependent friction response of articular cartilage under different conditions","volume":"220","author":"Bell","year":"2006","journal-title":"Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. H."},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1014","DOI":"10.3390\/pr11041014","article-title":"Human cartilage biomechanics: experimental and theoretical approaches towards the identification of mechanical properties in healthy and osteoarthritic conditions","volume":"11","author":"Belluzzi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Processes"},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0216702","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0216702","article-title":"Frictional characterization of injectable hyaluronic acids is more predictive of clinical outcomes than traditional rheological or viscoelastic characterization","volume":"14","author":"Bonnevie","year":"2019","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"B7","first-page":"82","article-title":"Joint contact stress: a reasonable surrogate for biological processes? Iowa orthop. J","volume":"25","author":"Brand","year":"2005","journal-title":"Iowa Orthop. J."},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1327","DOI":"10.1016\/j.joca.2009.03.020","article-title":"Investigation of the frictional response of osteoarthritic human tibiofemoral joints and the potential beneficial tribological effect of healthy synovial fluid","volume":"17","author":"Caligaris","year":"2009","journal-title":"Osteoarthr. Cartil."},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e2100147","DOI":"10.1002\/mabi.202100147","article-title":"PVA\u2010Based hydrogels: promising candidates for articular cartilage repair","volume":"21","author":"Chen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Macromol. Biosci."},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"885","DOI":"10.3390\/gels9110885","article-title":"Advanced hydrogel-based strategies for enhanced bone and cartilage regeneration: a comprehensive review","volume":"9","author":"De Leon-Oliva","year":"2023","journal-title":"Gels"},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinbiomech.2018.12.015","article-title":"Assessment of healthy trapeziometacarpal cartilage properties using indentation testing and contrast-enhanced computed tomography","volume":"61","author":"Dourthe","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Biomech."},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"746","DOI":"10.3390\/polym13050746","article-title":"Triborheological study under physiological conditions of PVA Hydrogel\/HA lubricant as synthetic system for soft tissue replacement","volume":"13","author":"Duque-Ossa","year":"2021","journal-title":"Polym. (Basel)"},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"953","DOI":"10.1007\/s10439-019-02213-4","article-title":"Elastic, viscoelastic and fibril-reinforced poroelastic material properties of healthy and osteoarthritic human tibial cartilage","volume":"47","author":"Ebrahimi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ann. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3830","DOI":"10.3390\/polym14183830","article-title":"Tribological and rheological properties of poly(vinyl alcohol)-Gellan gum composite hydrogels","volume":"14","author":"Feng","year":"2022","journal-title":"Polym. (Basel)"},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.3233\/BIR-2011-0596","article-title":"A new viscosupplement based on partially hydrophobic hyaluronic acid: a comparative study","volume":"48","author":"Finelli","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biorheology Official J. Int. Soc. Biorheology"},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1186\/s13018-017-0534-y","article-title":"The use of mesenchymal stem cells for cartilage repair and regeneration: a systematic review","volume":"12","author":"Goldberg","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Orthop. Surg. Res."},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"544","DOI":"10.1039\/B603209P","article-title":"Friction and lubrication of Hydrogels\u2014Its richness and complexity","volume":"2","author":"Gong","year":"2006","journal-title":"Soft Matter"},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1400","DOI":"10.1021\/bp060181u","article-title":"Poly(vinyl alcohol) hydrogel as a biocompatible viscoelastic mimetic for articular cartilage","volume":"22","author":"Grant","year":"2006","journal-title":"Biotechnol. Prog."},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"112323","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2024.112323","article-title":"Influence of articular cartilage sample geometry on mechanical response and properties using finite element simulation","volume":"176","author":"J\u00f6nsson","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Biomech."},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1243\/095441103765212712","article-title":"Mechanical anisotropy of the human knee articular cartilage in compression","volume":"217","author":"Jurvelin","year":"2003","journal-title":"Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. H."},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"427S","DOI":"10.1177\/1947603520973240","article-title":"Assessment of native human articular cartilage: a biomechanical protocol","volume":"13","author":"Kabir","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cartilage"},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1648","DOI":"10.3390\/healthcare12161648","article-title":"Cartilage integrity: a review of mechanical and frictional properties and repair approaches in osteoarthritis","volume":"12","author":"Krakowski","year":"2024","journal-title":"Healthcare"},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"115347","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2019.115347","article-title":"Enriched gellan gum hydrogel as visco-supplement","volume":"227","author":"Leone","year":"2020","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym."},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1007\/s10856-009-3863-5","article-title":"Influence of dynamic load on friction behavior of human articular cartilage, stainless steel and polyvinyl alcohol hydrogel as artificial cartilage","volume":"21","author":"Li","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Med."},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1007\/s10856-016-5700-y","article-title":"Analysis of friction between articular cartilage and polyvinyl alcohol hydrogel artificial cartilage","volume":"27","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Med."},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1155\/2017\/4502904","article-title":"The effects of surface mechanical deformation and bovine serum albumin on the tribological properties of polyvinyl alcohol hydrogel as an artificial cartilage","volume":"2017","author":"Li","year":"2017","journal-title":"Adv. Mater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"123330","DOI":"10.1016\/j.polymer.2020.123330","article-title":"Water governs the mechanical properties of poly(vinyl alcohol)","volume":"213","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Polym. Guildf."},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"134949","DOI":"10.1016\/j.colsurfa.2024.134949","article-title":"Preparation and performance verification of polyvinyl alcohol hydrogel biomimetic coating on the surface of vascular intervention guidewires","volume":"701","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Colloids Surf. A Physicochem. Eng. Asp."},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107027","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmbbm.2025.107027","article-title":"Machine learning-assisted strategies to enhance the mechanical properties of PVA hydrogels","volume":"168","author":"Li","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Mech. Behav. Biomed. Mater."},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2755","DOI":"10.3390\/polym16192755","article-title":"Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)-based hydrogels: recent progress in fabrication, properties, and multifunctional applications","volume":"16","author":"Liang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Polym. (Basel)"},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"119268","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2022.119268","article-title":"A high strength, low friction, and biocompatible hydrogel from PVA, chitosan and sodium alginate for articular cartilage","volume":"286","author":"Luo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym."},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"757","DOI":"10.1016\/j.triboint.2010.12.014","article-title":"Friction properties of PVA-H\/steel ball contact under water lubrication conditions","volume":"44","author":"Mamada","year":"2011","journal-title":"Tribol. Int."},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"16072","DOI":"10.1038\/nrdp.2016.72","article-title":"Osteoarthritis","volume":"2","author":"Martel-Pelletier","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Dis. Prim."},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"815","DOI":"10.15632\/jtam-pl\/210752","article-title":"Tribological effects of hyaluronic acid concentration on articular cartilage: Pin-On-Plate friction tests in porcine and osteoarthritic human tissue","volume":"63","author":"Mazurkiewicz","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Theor. Appl. Mech."},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"927","DOI":"10.1186\/s12891-022-05867-9","article-title":"Influence of hyaluronic acid on intra-articular friction \u2013 a biomechanical study in whole animal joints","volume":"23","author":"Mederake","year":"2022","journal-title":"BMC Musculoskelet. Disord."},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1186\/ar623","article-title":"Intra-articular hyaluronan (hyaluronic acid) and hylans for the treatment of osteoarthritis: mechanisms of action","volume":"5","author":"Moreland","year":"2003","journal-title":"Arthritis Res. Ther."},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1141","DOI":"10.1016\/j.joca.2007.03.018","article-title":"Estimation of mechanical properties of articular cartilage with MRI \u2013 dgemric, T2 and T1 imaging in different species with variable stages of maturation","volume":"15","author":"Nissi","year":"2007","journal-title":"Osteoarthr. Cartil."},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1957","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2015.04.008","article-title":"Wear and damage of articular cartilage with friction against orthopedic implant materials","volume":"48","author":"Oungoulian","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Biomech."},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.2147\/ORR.S38400","article-title":"Comparative digital cartilage histology for human and common osteoarthritis models","volume":"13","author":"Pedersen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Orthop. Res. Rev."},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"541","DOI":"10.3390\/bioengineering11060541","article-title":"How do cartilage lubrication mechanisms fail in osteoarthritis? A comprehensive review","volume":"11","author":"Rajankunte Mahadeshwara","year":"2024","journal-title":"Bioengineering"},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2659","DOI":"10.3390\/ma13112659","article-title":"On the dependence of rheology of hyaluronic acid solutions and frictional behavior of articular cartilage","volume":"13","author":"Rebenda","year":"2020","journal-title":"Materials"},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcis.2022.03.119","article-title":"Dopamine-conjugated hyaluronic acid delivered via intra-articular injection provides articular cartilage lubrication and protection","volume":"619","author":"Ren","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Colloid Interface Sci."},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wear.2012.11.054","article-title":"Tribological characterization of polyvinyl alcohol hydrogel as substitute of articular cartilage","volume":"301","author":"Sardinha","year":"2013","journal-title":"Wear"},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.1186\/s13018-019-1308-5","article-title":"Viscoelasticity and histology of the human cartilage in healthy and degenerated conditions of the knee","volume":"14","author":"Seidenstuecker","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Orthop. Surg. Res."},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e508","DOI":"10.1016\/S2665-9913(23)00163-7","article-title":"Global, regional, and national burden of osteoarthritis, 1990\u20132020 and projections to 2050: a systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2021","volume":"5","author":"Steinmetz","year":"2023","journal-title":"Lancet Rheumatol."},{"key":"B46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1089\/ten.teb.2011.0077","article-title":"Hydrogels for the repair of articular cartilage defects","volume":"17","author":"Spiller","year":"2011","journal-title":"Tissue Eng. Part B Rev."},{"key":"B47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"104966","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmbbm.2021.104966","article-title":"Time-dependent mechanical behavior of partially oxidized polyvinyl alcohol hydrogels for tissue engineering","volume":"125","author":"Todros","year":"","journal-title":"J. Mech. Behav. Biomed. Mater."},{"key":"B48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"789","DOI":"10.3390\/bioengineering9120789","article-title":"Compressive mechanical behavior of partially oxidized polyvinyl alcohol hydrogels for cartilage tissue repair","volume":"9","author":"Todros","year":"","journal-title":"Bioengineering"},{"key":"B49","first-page":"283","volume-title":"Poly(Vinyl Alcohol) Cryogels for Biomedical Applications","author":"Wan","year":"2014"},{"key":"B50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4830","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bioactmat.2021.05.011","article-title":"Articular cartilage and osteochondral tissue engineering techniques: recent advances and challenges","volume":"6","author":"Wei","year":"2021","journal-title":"Bioact. Mater."},{"key":"B51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1699","DOI":"10.1016\/j.joca.2018.08.009","article-title":"Cartilage-on-cartilage contact: effect of compressive loading on tissue deformations and structural integrity of bovine articular cartilage","volume":"26","author":"Zevenbergen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Osteoarthr. Cartil."},{"key":"B52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"041007","DOI":"10.1115\/1.4049158","article-title":"Direct osmotic pressure measurements in articular cartilage demonstrate nonideal and concentration-dependent phenomena","volume":"143","author":"Zimmerman","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Biomech. Eng."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fbioe.2026.1770162\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,11]],"date-time":"2026-06-11T05:48:55Z","timestamp":1781156935000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fbioe.2026.1770162\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,11]]},"references-count":52,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fbioe.2026.1770162"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fbioe.2026.1770162","relation":{},"ISSN":["2296-4185"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2296-4185","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,11]]},"article-number":"1770162"}}