{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,3]],"date-time":"2026-07-03T06:20:48Z","timestamp":1783059648441,"version":"3.54.6"},"reference-count":33,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,3]],"date-time":"2026-07-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1783036800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Adeno-associated virus (AAV) vectors are one of the most used gene delivery systems, and several capsid engineering strategies have been followed to further improve their performance. Current capsid design approaches predominantly rely on small peptide insertions (&amp;lt;100 a.a.). Integrating large proteins poses challenges due to the nature of protein folding and the complexity of capsid assembly.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>This study seeks to explore capsid engineerable hotspots for large protein insertion, aiming to unlock the use of AAV vectors to deliver large protein cargo and extend their use beyond traditional AAV gene therapy approaches. In this work, we employed a capsid mosaic approach, integrating a mCherry protein (236 a.a) into the VP1 capsid protein (453 or 587 residues) and the N-terminal of VP2 (corresponding to 138 residue of VP1). A systematic breakdown of the different capsid insertions was performed to elucidate insertion site versatility and behaviour.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results and Discussion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The engineered AAV2\/mCherry mosaic vectors presented no major impairments in biophysical and particle functionality. Moreover, alterations in particle titer or biophysical properties were associated with the development of mosaic vectors, rather than the mCherry insertion. In vitro transduction studies showed residues 138 and 453 as particularly permissive sites for functional protein integration without severe structural or functional compromises. While still affecting mCherry fluorescence, both sites preserved the protein\u2019s activity more than site 587. Our work unveils the robustness of AAV capsids to host substantial domain insertions without compromising particle production. The characterisation of these particles ultimately indicated that residue 138 is the most flexible site for inserting proteins up to 236 amino acids, followed by residue 453. These findings establish foundational knowledge for broadening the applications of these vectors to deliver large protein cargo, paving the way for the future development of novel AAV vector systems.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2026.1862682","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,3]],"date-time":"2026-07-03T05:38:42Z","timestamp":1783057122000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["AAV capsid sites breakdown: large protein insertions impact on vector dynamics"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Mariana V.","family":"Ferreira","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"iBET-Instituto de Biologia Experimental e Tecnol\u00f3gica","place":["Oeiras, Portugal"]},{"name":"Instituto de Tecnologia Qu\u00edmica e Biol\u00f3gica Ant\u00f3nio Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa","place":["Oeiras, Portugal"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marina","family":"Curto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"iBET-Instituto de Biologia Experimental e Tecnol\u00f3gica","place":["Oeiras, Portugal"]},{"name":"Instituto de Tecnologia Qu\u00edmica e Biol\u00f3gica Ant\u00f3nio Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa","place":["Oeiras, Portugal"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andr\u00e9","family":"Nascimento","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"iBET-Instituto de Biologia Experimental e Tecnol\u00f3gica","place":["Oeiras, Portugal"]},{"name":"Instituto de Tecnologia Qu\u00edmica e Biol\u00f3gica Ant\u00f3nio Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa","place":["Oeiras, Portugal"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Micael C.","family":"Freitas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"iBET-Instituto de Biologia Experimental e Tecnol\u00f3gica","place":["Oeiras, Portugal"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pedro M. 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