{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T05:54:18Z","timestamp":1791179658835,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":83,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1791158400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000084","name":"Directorate for Engineering","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2238880"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2238880"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000084","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>This study examined how motor task difficulty and augmented sensory feedback (ASF) modality influence task performance, physiological responses, and perceptual experience during virtual reality (VR)-based upper-limb motor training. Building on related brace- and VR-based ASF platforms previously examined in neurotypical and spinal cord injury cohorts, the long-term goal is to support neurorehabilitation-oriented adaptive VR training; however, the present study used neurotypical participants as an initial validation step.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Fourteen right-handed neurotypical participants used a supportive upper-limb brace and surface electromyography (EMG) for myoelectric control of a virtual robotic arm in a two-dimensional tracking task. A 2 \u00d7 2 within-subject design crossed ASF modality (visual feedback versus visual + haptic feedback) with task difficulty (straight-line versus sinusoidal trajectory). Outcomes included normalized path length, task completion time, movement jerk, alpha- and beta-band electroencephalogram (EEG) power over motor cortex, heart rate, EMG amplitude, EMG-displacement-based virtual work, and perceptual ratings of agency, motivation, and utility. Short-term pre-to-post percentage changes were computed for each measure.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>VHF straight-line training produced the largest reductions in normalized path length (-4.69%) and completion time (-6.12%), whereas VHF sinusoid training produced the largest reductions in movement jerk (-5.67%) and virtual work (-13.33%). ASF modality affected path length, completion time, jerk, EMG amplitude, and virtual work, whereas task difficulty modulated beta-band EEG power and the physiological index. Changes in path length were positively associated with changes in completion time and EMG amplitude.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Discussion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>These findings suggest that ASF modality and task difficulty can differentially shape short-term behavioral, physiological, and perceptual responses in healthy participants. The exploratory distribution of participant-specific best-case conditions motivates future studies using independent trial subsets to evaluate whether behavioral and physiological measures can support individualized VR training.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2026.1884697","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T05:31:32Z","timestamp":1791178292000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Variable task difficulty with augmented sensory feedback for motor training in virtual reality"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Yu","family":"Shi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, Stevens Institute of Technology","place":["Hoboken, NJ, United States"]},{"name":"Movement Control Rehabilitation (MOCORE) Laboratory, Altorfer Complex, Stevens Institute of Technology","place":["Hoboken, NJ, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sophie","family":"Dewil","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, Stevens Institute of Technology","place":["Hoboken, NJ, United States"]},{"name":"Movement Control Rehabilitation (MOCORE) Laboratory, Altorfer Complex, Stevens Institute of Technology","place":["Hoboken, NJ, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zachary","family":"Marvin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, Stevens Institute of Technology","place":["Hoboken, NJ, United States"]},{"name":"Movement Control Rehabilitation (MOCORE) Laboratory, Altorfer Complex, Stevens Institute of Technology","place":["Hoboken, NJ, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Noam Y.","family":"Harel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Spinal Cord Damage Research Center, James J. 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