{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,15]],"date-time":"2026-09-15T06:04:51Z","timestamp":1789452291333,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,15]],"date-time":"2026-09-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1789430400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Inspired by the striking structural resemblance between trabecular bone microarchitecture and the dendritic branching morphology, we propose a novel biomimetic bone scaffold design strategy that replicates tree-derived fractal architecture. Four distinct fractal-structured porous scaffolds were fabricated via Selective Laser MeltingSLM 3D printing technology using Ti6Al4V alloy. The porosity distribution, damage mode, and mechanical properties of these scaffolds were systematically investigated. Through systematic modulation of fractal dimension and branching parameters, biomimetic bone scaffolds with customizable pore architecture and spatial distribution characteristics can be precisely fabricated. The porosity of the biomimetic scaffold gradually increases from the outer to the inner region, mimicking the porosity distribution of native bone. The biomimetic scaffolds with third-order fractal exhibit excellent mechanical properties of high compressive damage resistance and low elastic modulus. The compressive damage evolution pattern of biomimetic porous scaffolds is highly consistent with that of natural bone. The fracture propagation path presents an approximately 45\u00b0 angle relative to the scaffold axis, which endows the scaffold with enhanced axial load-bearing capacity. The bionic porous scaffold designed in this study achieves consistent porosity distribution and analogous mechanical responses with natural bone.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2026.1928634","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,15]],"date-time":"2026-09-15T05:33:27Z","timestamp":1789450407000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Design and mechanical damage behavior of radially gradient-controllable Ti6Al4V bionic porous bone scaffolds"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Yuxi","family":"Liu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Smart Health, Chongqing Polytechnic University of Electronic Technology","place":["Chongqing, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shuge","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Smart Health, Chongqing Polytechnic University of Electronic Technology","place":["Chongqing, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aihua","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Gastroenterology, Chongqing University Cancer Hospital, School of Medicine, Chongqing University","place":["Chongqing, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yinhui","family":"Zhong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Vehicle Engineering, Chongqing Industry Polytechnic University","place":["Chongqing, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bing","family":"Du","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chongqing Key Laboratory of Nano-Micro Composite Materials and Devices, School of Metallurgy and Materials Engineering, Chongqing University of Science and Technology","place":["Chongqing, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tianshun","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Smart Health, Chongqing Polytechnic University of Electronic Technology","place":["Chongqing, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"112850","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matdes.2024.112850","article-title":"Titanium-based alloys and composites for orthopedic implants applications: a comprehensive review","volume":"241","author":"Abd-Elaziem","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mater. and Des."},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1007\/s42242-023-00259-x","article-title":"Customized scaffolds for large bone defects using 3D-printed modular blocks from 2D-medical images","volume":"7","author":"Acar","year":"2024","journal-title":"Bio-Design Manuf."},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3310","DOI":"10.3390\/ma15093310","article-title":"Design and validation of additively manufactured metallic cellular scaffold structures for bone tissue engineering","volume":"15","author":"Al-Barqawi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Materials"},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matdes.2017.10.040","article-title":"Anisotropic Ti-6Al-4V gyroid scaffolds manufactured by electron beam melting (EBM) for bone implant applications","volume":"137","author":"Ataee","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mater. and Des."},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100032","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mtbio.2019.100032","article-title":"Ceramics with the signature of wood: a mechanical insight","volume":"5","author":"Bigoni","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mater. Today Bio"},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"781","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msec.2019.03.054","article-title":"Continuous compression behaviors of selective laser melting Ti-6Al-4V alloy with cuboctahedron cellular structures","volume":"100","author":"Chen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Eng. C"},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"eabg3089","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.abg3089","article-title":"Biomaterials with structural hierarchy and controlled 3D nanotopography guide endogenous bone regeneration","volume":"7","author":"Chen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Advances"},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1007\/s10853-011-5914-9","article-title":"The structure and mechanics of bone","volume":"47","author":"Currey","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Mater. Sci."},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2100073","DOI":"10.1002\/anbr.202100073","article-title":"(Bio)manufactured solutions for treatment of bone defects with emphasis on US-FDA regulatory science perspective","volume":"2","author":"Ghelich","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. NanoBiomed Res."},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"707","DOI":"10.3390\/fractalfract7100707","article-title":"Correlation between convolution kernel function and error function of bone fractal operators","volume":"7","author":"Jian","year":"2023","journal-title":"Fractal Fractal"},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"110610","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matdes.2022.110610","article-title":"Additive manufacturing of Bio-inspired ceramic bone scaffolds: structural design, mechanical properties and biocompatibility","volume":"217","author":"Jiao","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mat. Des."},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3216","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.202503171","article-title":"Biomimetic design and performance of TPMS radial continuous gradient porous bone scaffolds","volume":"31","author":"Kai","year":"2025","journal-title":"Metals Mater. Int."},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"117638","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compstruct.2023.117638","article-title":"Design and evaluation of TPMS-Inspired 3D-printed scaffolds for bone tissue engineering: enabling tailored mechanical and mass transport properties","volume":"327","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Compos. Struct."},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"063614","DOI":"10.1063\/5.0218990","article-title":"Fractal analysis of dimensionless permeability and Kozeny\u2013Carman constant of spherical granular porous media with randomly distributed tree-like branching networks","volume":"36","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Phys. Fluids"},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1186\/s40643-022-00600-9","article-title":"Bionic design based on micro-nano structure of osteon and its low-velocity impact damage behavior","volume":"9","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Bioresour. Bioprocess."},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3389\/FBIOE.2023.999137","article-title":"Research on biomimetic design and impact characteristics of periodic multilayer helical structures","volume":"11","author":"Liu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol."},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"025380381","DOI":"10.36922\/IJB025380381","article-title":"Optimal structural characteristics of bone tissue engineering scaffolds from bionics and PSO-BP-NSGA III integrated algorithm","author":"Liu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Bioprint"},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.1016\/j.medengphy.2017.06.015","article-title":"Finite-element design and optimization of a three-dimensional tetrahedral porous titanium scaffold for the reconstruction of mandibular defects","volume":"47","author":"Luo","year":"2017","journal-title":"Med. Eng. Phys."},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3650","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmrt.2022.10.160","article-title":"Design of bone-like continuous gradient porous scaffold based on triply periodic minimal surfaces","volume":"21","author":"Lv","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Mater. Res. Technol."},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1328078","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2024.1328078","article-title":"3D bioprinting technology to construct bone reconstruction research model and its feasibility evaluation","volume":"12","author":"Lv","year":"2024","journal-title":"Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol."},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"158","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matdes.2020.109034","article-title":"Mechanical behaviours and mass transport properties of bone-mimicking scaffolds consisted of gyroid structures manufactured using selective laser melting","volume":"93","author":"Ma","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mater. and Des."},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"108137","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matdes.2019.108137","article-title":"SLM lattice structures: properties, performance, applications and challenges","volume":"183","author":"Maconachie","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mat. Des."},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"45633","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-30661-7","article-title":"Biomechanical implications of femoral neck system removal following femoral neck fracture treatment in low bone mineral density conditions","volume":"15","author":"Pak","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"eaam8828","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.aam8828","article-title":"Mechanobiologically optimized 3d titanium-mesh scaffolds enhance bone regeneration in critical segmental defects in sheep","volume":"10","author":"Pobloth","year":"2018","journal-title":"Science Translational Medicine"},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9170","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-44872-2","article-title":"Optimization of bone scaffold porosity distributions","volume":"9","author":"Poh","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12759","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-17066-6","article-title":"Structural design and performance study of primitive triply periodic minimal surfaces Ti6Al4V biomimetic scaffold","volume":"12","author":"Qin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9892689","DOI":"10.34133\/2021\/9892689","article-title":"Fractal design boosts extrusion-based 3D printing of bone-mimicking radial-gradient scaffolds","volume":"23","author":"Qu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Res. (Wash D C)"},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3815","DOI":"10.2298\/tam1103209n","article-title":"Bone hierarchical structure in three dimensions","volume":"10","author":"Reznikov","year":"2014","journal-title":"Acta Biomater."},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"eaao2189","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aao2189","article-title":"Fractal-like hierarchical organization of bone begins at the nanoscale","volume":"360","author":"Reznikov","year":"2018","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100382","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mtbio.2022.100382","article-title":"3D bioprinting of in situ vascularized tissue engineered bone for repairing large segmental bone defects","volume":"16","author":"Shen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mater. Today Bio"},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11187","DOI":"10.3390\/app132011187","article-title":"Computational model for tree-like fractals used as internal structures for additive manufacturing parts","volume":"13","author":"Stanciu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Appl. Sci."},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-32446-8_40","article-title":"Tree-like fractal structures modeling and their application in 3D printed bones","volume":"133","author":"Stanciu","year":"2023","journal-title":"MESROB 2023. Mech. Mach. Sci."},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2215","DOI":"10.3390\/ma18102215","article-title":"Analysis of the mechanical behavior of tree-like fractal structures in SLM-manufactured components","volume":"18","author":"Stanciu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Materials"},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"104889","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmbbm.2021.104889","article-title":"Biomechanics of immature human cortical bone: a systematic review","volume":"125","author":"Szabo","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Mechanical Behavior Biomedical Materials"},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"112503","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compositesb.2025.112503","article-title":"Enhanced large segmental bone defect repair of bionic tissue-engineered bone grafts with 3D printed long bone-mimicking structures under micro-vibration stimulation","volume":"301","author":"Tian","year":"2025","journal-title":"Compos. Part B Eng."},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"043621","DOI":"10.1063\/5.0201040","article-title":"An analytical model for permeability of fractal tree-like branched networks composed of converging\u2013diverging capillaries","volume":"36","author":"Tu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Phys. Fluids"},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.3390\/biomimetics9050279","article-title":"Advances in biomimetic scaffolds for hard tissue surgery","volume":"9","author":"Uklejewski","year":"2024","journal-title":"Biomimetics"},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.3390\/fractalfract5020040","article-title":"Utilizing fractals for modeling and 3D printing of porous structures","volume":"5","author":"Ullah","year":"2021","journal-title":"Fractal Fract."},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"015023","DOI":"10.1088\/1758-5090\/9\/1\/015023","article-title":"Validation of scaffold design optimization in bone tissue engineering: finite element modeling versus designed experiments","volume":"9","author":"Uth","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biofabrication"},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105584","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmbbm.2022.105584","article-title":"A morphological, topological and mechanical investigation of gyroid, spinodoid and dual-lattice algorithms as structural models of trabecular bone","volume":"138","author":"Vafaeefar","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Mech. Behav. Biomed."},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"113697","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matdes.2025.113697","article-title":"Data-driven inverse design of novel spinodoid bone scaffolds with highly matched mechanical properties in three orthogonal directions","volume":"251","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Mater. and Des."},{"key":"B522","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2016.01.012","article-title":"Topological design and additive manufacturing of porous metals for bone scaffolds and orthopaedic implants: a review","volume":"83","author":"Wang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biomat."},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mser.2014.04.001","article-title":"Biomimetic porous scaffolds for bone tissue engineering","volume":"80","author":"Wu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mat. Sci. Eng. R."},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actbio.2018.08.001","article-title":"Young\u2019s modulus of trabecular bone at the tissue level: a review","volume":"78","author":"Wu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Acta Biomater."},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"532","DOI":"10.1038\/s43588-021-00115-x","article-title":"A machine learning-based multiscale model to predict bone formation in scaffolds","volume":"1","author":"Wu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Comput. Sci."},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"118256","DOI":"10.1016\/j.powtec.2023.118256","article-title":"A fractal analytical model for Kozeny-Carman constant and permeability of roughened porous media composed of particles and converging-diverging capillaries","volume":"420","author":"Xiao","year":"2023","journal-title":"Powder Technol."},{"key":"B46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103673","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmbbm.2020.103673","article-title":"Rationally designed functionally graded porous Ti6Al4V scaffolds with high strength and toughness built via selective laser melting for load-bearing orthopedic applications","volume":"104","author":"Xiong","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Mech. Behav. Biomed. Mater."},{"key":"B47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6414","DOI":"10.3390\/ma15186414","article-title":"Influence of machining parameters on cutting and chip-formation process during cortical bone orthogonal machining","volume":"15","author":"Zawadzki","year":"2022","journal-title":"Materials"},{"key":"B48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"084001","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-651X\/ac2b03","article-title":"Design of Menger sponge fractal structural NiTi as bone implants. Modelling Simul","volume":"29","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mat. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"B49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"114490","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engstruct.2022.114490","article-title":"Dynamic behaviors of bio-inspired structures: design mechanisms and models","volume":"265","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."},{"key":"B50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2207951","DOI":"10.1002\/smll.202470023","article-title":"Journey of mineral precursors in bone mineralization: evolution and inspiration for biomimetic design","volume":"20","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Small"},{"key":"B51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9595","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.9b04723","article-title":"Hierarchically porous hydroxyapatite hybrid scaffold incorporated with reduced graphene oxide for rapid bone ingrowth and repair","author":"Zhou","year":"2019","journal-title":"ACS Nano"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fbioe.2026.1928634\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,15]],"date-time":"2026-09-15T05:33:28Z","timestamp":1789450408000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fbioe.2026.1928634\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,15]]},"references-count":52,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fbioe.2026.1928634"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fbioe.2026.1928634","relation":{},"ISSN":["2296-4185"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2296-4185","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,15]]},"article-number":"1928634"}}