{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T12:24:05Z","timestamp":1790771045124,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":231,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,15]],"date-time":"2021-02-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1613347200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001824","name":"Grantov\u00e1 Agentura Cesk\u00e9 Republiky","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001824","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Cell Dev. Biol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Insulin resistance and cachexia represent severe metabolic syndromes accompanying a variety of human pathological states, from life-threatening cancer and sepsis to chronic inflammatory states, such as obesity and autoimmune disorders. Although the origin of these metabolic syndromes has not been fully comprehended yet, a growing body of evidence indicates their possible interconnection with the acute and chronic activation of an innate immune response. Current progress in insect immuno-metabolic research reveals that the induction of insulin resistance might represent an adaptive mechanism during the acute phase of bacterial infection. In <jats:italic>Drosophila<\/jats:italic>, insulin resistance is induced by signaling factors released by bactericidal macrophages as a reflection of their metabolic polarization toward aerobic glycolysis. Such metabolic adaptation enables them to combat the invading pathogens efficiently but also makes them highly nutritionally demanding. Therefore, systemic metabolism has to be adjusted upon macrophage activation to provide them with nutrients and thus support the immune function. That anticipates the involvement of macrophage-derived systemic factors mediating the inter-organ signaling between macrophages and central energy-storing organs. Although it is crucial to coordinate the macrophage cellular metabolism with systemic metabolic changes during the acute phase of bacterial infection, the action of macrophage-derived factors may become maladaptive if chronic or in case of infection by an intracellular pathogen. We hypothesize that insulin resistance evoked by macrophage-derived signaling factors represents an adaptive mechanism for the mobilization of sources and their preferential delivery toward the activated immune system. We consider here the validity of the presented model for mammals and human medicine. The adoption of aerobic glycolysis by bactericidal macrophages as well as the induction of insulin resistance by macrophage-derived factors are conserved between insects and mammals. Chronic insulin resistance is at the base of many human metabolically conditioned diseases such as non-alcoholic steatohepatitis, atherosclerosis, diabetes, and cachexia. Therefore, revealing the original biological relevance of cytokine-induced insulin resistance may help to develop a suitable strategy for treating these frequent diseases.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fcell.2021.629238","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,15]],"date-time":"2021-02-15T10:25:44Z","timestamp":1613384744000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":22,"title":["Polarization of Macrophages in Insects: Opening Gates for Immuno-Metabolic Research"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"9","author":[{"given":"Adam","family":"Bajgar","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gabriela","family":"Krej\u010dov\u00e1","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tom\u00e1\u0161","family":"Dole\u017eal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.1016\/S1534-5807(03)00244-2","article-title":"Signaling role of hemocytes in Drosophila JAK\/STAT-dependent response to septic injury.","volume":"5","author":"Agaisse","year":"2003","journal-title":"Dev. 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