{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,16]],"date-time":"2026-06-16T05:54:13Z","timestamp":1781589253668,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":254,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,16]],"date-time":"2026-06-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1781568000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100019305","name":"Manipal Academy of Higher Education","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100019305","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001407","name":"Department of Biotechnology, Ministry of Science and Technology, India","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001407","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001411","name":"Indian Council of Medical Research","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001411","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Cell Dev. Biol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Tracheal damage arising from inflammation, trauma, congenital anomalies, or tumors can lead to life-threatening complications, yet current treatments, including surgical reconstruction, stenting, laser therapies, autografts, and allografts, remain inadequate, especially for long-segment defects. As a result, tracheal tissue engineering has emerged as a promising alternative, aiming to create functional biomimetic constructs that reduce dependence on complex surgeries, long-term stenting, and immunosuppression. Advances in additive manufacturing and 3D bioprinting have accelerated progress toward engineered tracheal substitutes; however, a fully functional, clinically viable 3D-bioprinted human tracheal graft has yet to be realized. This review assesses current bioengineering strategies, with a particular emphasis on the interplay between cell sources, scaffold materials, and fabrication methods, specifically focusing on 3D bioprinted tracheal constructs. Across existing studies, the most promising direction lies in multi-material, multicellular, spatially patterned bioprinting approaches that can better recapitulate the trachea\u2019s complex biomechanics and heterogeneous tissue composition. Finally, we summarize regulatory considerations and outline key scientific and translational barriers, emphasizing that overcoming challenges in vascularization, innervation, and long-term functional integration will be essential to achieving a physiologically aligned, clinically deployable tracheal substitute.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fcell.2026.1713743","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,16]],"date-time":"2026-06-16T05:39:07Z","timestamp":1781588347000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Towards a bioengineered airway: advances in tracheal tissue engineering and biofabrication"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Palla Ranga","family":"Prasad","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiation Biology and Toxicology, Manipal School of Life Sciences, Manipal Academy of Higher Education","place":["Manipal, India"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Praveen Kumar","family":"Sahni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiation Biology and Toxicology, Manipal School of Life Sciences, Manipal Academy of Higher Education","place":["Manipal, India"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Debadrita","family":"Mondal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiation Biology and Toxicology, Manipal School of Life Sciences, Manipal Academy of Higher Education","place":["Manipal, India"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kirthanashri S.","family":"Vasanthan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Manipal Centre for Biotherapeutics Research, Manipal Academy of Higher Education","place":["Manipal, India"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"S.","family":"Varadharajan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Manipal Institute of Technology, Manipal Academy of Higher Education","place":["Manipal, India"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ashwini","family":"Kumar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Forensic Medicine, Kasturba Medical College, Manipal Academy of Higher Education","place":["Manipal, India"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"N. 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