{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,22]],"date-time":"2026-10-22T19:42:08Z","timestamp":1792698128292,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":112,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,11]],"date-time":"2022-07-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1657497600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["No.82000561 to HC; No.81974078,81570530, 81370550 to LY"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["No.82000561 to HC; No.81974078,81570530, 81370550 to LY"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003819","name":"Natural Science Foundation of Hubei Province","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["No.2019ACA1333 to LY"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["No.2019ACA1333 to LY"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003819","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) is a chronic immune-mediated liver disease distributed globally in all ethnicities with increasing prevalence. If left untreated, the disease will lead to cirrhosis, liver failure, or death. The intestinal microbiota is a complex ecosystem located in the human intestine, which extensively affects the human physiological and pathological processes. With more and more in-depth understandings of intestinal microbiota, a substantial body of studies have verified that the intestinal microbiota plays a crucial role in a variety of digestive system diseases, including alcohol-associated liver disease (ALD) and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). However, only a few studies have paid attention to evaluate the relationship between AIH and the intestinal microbiota. While AIH pathogenesis is not fully elucidated yet, some studies have indicated that intestinal microbiota putatively made significant contributions to the occurrence and the development of AIH by triggering several specific signaling pathways, altering the metabolism of intestinal microbiota, as well as modulating the immune response in the intestine and liver. By collecting the latest related literatures, this review summarized the increasing trend of the aerobic bacteria abundance in both AIH patients and AIH mice models. Moreover, the combination of specific bacteria species was found distinct to AIH patients, which could be a promising tool for diagnosing AIH. In addition, there were alterations of luminal metabolites and immune responses, including decreased short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), increased pathogen associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), imbalanced regulatory T (Treg)\/Th17 cells, follicular regulatory T (TFR)\/follicular helper T (TFH) cells, and activated natural killer T (NKT) cells. These alterations participate in the onset and the progression of AIH <jats:italic>via<\/jats:italic> multiple mechanisms. Therefore, some therapeutic methods based on restoration of intestinal microbiota composition, including probiotics and fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT), as well as targeted intestinal microbiota-associated signaling pathways, confer novel insights into the treatment for AIH patients.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2022.947382","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,11]],"date-time":"2022-07-11T14:04:29Z","timestamp":1657548269000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":48,"title":["The Gut Microbiota: A Novel Player in Autoimmune Hepatitis"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Zilu","family":"Cheng","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ling","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Huikuan","family":"Chu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"643","DOI":"10.1016\/j.suc.2010.04.017","article-title":"Liver Anatomy","volume":"90","author":"Abdel-Misih","year":"2010","journal-title":"Surg. Clin. North Am."},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1071","DOI":"10.14309\/ajg.0000000000000115","article-title":"Fecal Microbiota Transplantation in Patients With Primary Sclerosing Cholangitis: A Pilot Clinical Trial","volume":"114","author":"Allegretti","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2020.115750","article-title":"Unexpected Diversity of Acetate Degraders in Anaerobic Membrane Bioreactor Treating Organic Solid Waste Revealed by High-Sensitivity Stable Isotope Probing","volume":"176","author":"Aoyagi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"567","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.1990.70.2.567","article-title":"Energy Contributions of Volatile Fatty Acids From the Gastrointestinal Tract in Various Species","volume":"70","author":"Bergman","year":"1990","journal-title":"Physiol. Rev."},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1038\/nature04753","article-title":"Reciprocal Developmental Pathways for the Generation of Pathogenic Effector TH17 and Regulatory T Cells","volume":"441","author":"Bettelli","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/10408398.2021.1902263","article-title":"Therapeutic Modulation Methods of Gut Microbiota and Gut-Liver Axis","volume":"22","author":"Beyaz Co\u015fkun","year":"2021","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr"},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"447","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcmgh.2019.06.003","article-title":"GPBAR1 Functions as Gatekeeper for Liver NKT Cells and Provides Counterregulatory Signals in Mouse Models of Immune-Mediated Hepatitis","volume":"8","author":"Biagioli","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.3920\/BM2020.0057","article-title":"Short Chain Fatty Acids in Human Gut and Metabolic Health","volume":"11","author":"Blaak","year":"2020","journal-title":"Benef. Microbes"},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1097\/00004836-200307000-00012","article-title":"Treatment of Ulcerative Colitis Using Fecal Bacteriotherapy","volume":"37","author":"Borody","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Clin. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114516004037","article-title":"Can Probiotics Modulate Human Disease by Impacting Intestinal Barrier Function","volume":"117","author":"Bron","year":"2017","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8185","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.89.17.8185","article-title":"Cloning of the Ah-Receptor cDNA Reveals a Distinctive Ligand-Activated Transcription Factor","volume":"89","author":"Burbach","year":"1992","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A."},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1080\/00016350510020070","article-title":"Effect of Yogurt With Bifidobacterium DN-173 010 on Salivary Mutans Streptococci and Lactobacilli in Young Adults","volume":"63","author":"Caglar","year":"2005","journal-title":"Acta Odontol. Scand."},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6204","DOI":"10.12659\/MSM.915408","article-title":"Foxp3(+) Treg Cells Are Associated With Pathological Process of Autoimmune Hepatitis by Activating Methylation Modification in Autoimmune Hepatitis Patients","volume":"25","author":"Chen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Monit."},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/srep07259","article-title":"Natural Killer T Cells Play a Necessary Role in Modulating of Immune-Mediated Liver Injury by Gut Microbiota","volume":"4","author":"Chen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1323","DOI":"10.1016\/s0140-6736(56)91483-0","article-title":"Lupoid Hepatitis","volume":"271","author":"Cowling","year":"1956","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5958","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-021-26266-z","article-title":"Specific Gut Microbiome Signatures and the Associated Pro-Inflamatory Functions are Linked to Pediatric Allergy and Acquisition of Immune Tolerance","volume":"12","author":"De Filippis","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"611","DOI":"10.1111\/1751-2980.12085","article-title":"Autoimmune Hepatitis in Southern Israel: A 15-Year Multicenter Study","volume":"14","author":"Delgado","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Dig. Dis."},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.pharmtox.43.100901.135828","article-title":"Activation of the Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor by Structurally Diverse Exogenous and Endogenous Chemicals","volume":"43","author":"Denison","year":"2003","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol."},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1111\/imm.12765","article-title":"Intestinal Dysbiosis and Probiotic Applications in Autoimmune Diseases","volume":"152","author":"de Oliveira","year":"2017","journal-title":"Immunology"},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2004.08.012","article-title":"Osteopontin as a Mediator of NKT Cell Function in T Cell-Mediated Liver Diseases","volume":"21","author":"Diao","year":"2004","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2010.02.012","article-title":"Control of Intestinal Homeostasis, Colitis, and Colitis-Associated Colorectal Cancer by the Inflammatory Caspases","volume":"32","author":"Dupaul-Chicoine","year":"2010","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1011","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms8071011","article-title":"Autoimmune Hepatitis: Shifts in Gut Microbiota and Metabolic Pathways Among Egyptian Patients","volume":"8","author":"Elsherbiny","year":"2020","journal-title":"Microorganisms"},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"971","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhep.2015.06.030","article-title":"EASL Clinical Practice Guidelines: Autoimmune Hepatitis","volume":"63","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Hepatol."},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.2147\/CEG.S28792","article-title":"Gelatin Tannate Reduces the Proinflammatory Effects of Lipopolysaccharide in Human Intestinal Epithelial Cells","volume":"5","author":"Frasca","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0232739","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0232739","article-title":"Fecal Microbiota Transplantation in Systemic Sclerosis: A Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Randomized Pilot Trial","volume":"15","author":"Fretheim","year":"2020","journal-title":"PloS One"},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4999","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1402598","article-title":"Lipopolysaccharide Regulation of Intestinal Tight Junction Permeability Is Mediated by TLR4 Signal Transduction Pathway Activation of FAK and Myd88","volume":"195","author":"Guo","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Immunol. (Baltimore Md. 1950)"},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1445-5994.2009.02041.x","article-title":"Autoimmune Hepatitis in a Demographically Isolated Area of Australia","volume":"40","author":"Haider","year":"2010","journal-title":"Intern. Med. J."},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2021.699253","article-title":"Dynamic Changes of the Fungal Microbiome in Alcohol Use Disorder","volume":"12","author":"Hartmann","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Physiol."},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejphar.2017.07.012","article-title":"JKB-122 is Effective, Alone or in Combination With Prednisolone in Con A-Induced Hepatitis","volume":"812","author":"Hsu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2016.00054","article-title":"Innate Sensing of the Gut Microbiota: Modulation of Inflammatory and Autoimmune Diseases","volume":"7","author":"Ignacio","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"B31","first-page":"602","article-title":"Profiles of Autoimmune Hepatitis in Brunei Darussalam","volume":"8","author":"Jalihal","year":"2009","journal-title":"Hepatobiliary Pancreat. Dis. Int."},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.4162\/nrp.2015.9.4.343","article-title":"Butyrate Modulates Bacterial Adherence on LS174T Human Colorectal Cells by Stimulating Mucin Secretion and MAPK Signaling Pathway","volume":"9","author":"Jung","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nutr. Res. Pract."},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9435","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M209706200","article-title":"A G Protein-Coupled Receptor Responsive to Bile Acids","volume":"278","author":"Kawamata","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-immunol-070119-115104","article-title":"Interaction Between the Microbiota, Epithelia, and Immune Cells in the Intestine","volume":"38","author":"Kayama","year":"2020","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"412","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinre.2012.03.008","article-title":"Perspective: TGR5 (Gpbar-1) in Liver Physiology and Disease","volume":"36","author":"Keitel","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clinics Res. Hepatol. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0182391","article-title":"Population-Based Prevalence, Incidence, and Disease Burden of Autoimmune Hepatitis in South Korea","volume":"12","author":"Kim","year":"2017","journal-title":"PloS One"},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"396","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2013.04.056","article-title":"Short-Chain Fatty Acids Activate GPR41 and GPR43 on Intestinal Epithelial Cells to Promote Inflammatory Responses in Mice","volume":"145","author":"Kim","year":"2013","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1182\/blood.V74.1.1.1","article-title":"The Biology of Interleukin-6","volume":"74","author":"Kishimoto","year":"1989","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.3109\/08830185.2010.529976","article-title":"Pathogen Recognition by the Innate Immune System","volume":"30","author":"Kumar","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"522","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.30832","article-title":"Intestinal Fungal Dysbiosis and Systemic Immune Response to Fungi in Patients With Alcoholic Hepatitis","volume":"71","author":"Lang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Hepatology (Baltimore Md.)"},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0020014","article-title":"Role of IL-1 Beta in the Development of Human T(H)17 Cells: Lesson From NLPR3 Mutated Patients","volume":"6","author":"Lasigli\u00e8","year":"2011","journal-title":"PloS One"},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"348","DOI":"10.4166\/kjg.2014.64.6.348","article-title":"Differences in the Adverse Effects of Azathioprine Between Inflammatory Bowel Disease and Autoimmune Hepatitis in Korean Patients","volume":"64","author":"Lee","year":"2014","journal-title":"Korean J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1384","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1440-1746.2001.02646.x","article-title":"Autoimmune Hepatitis in Singapore: A Rare Syndrome Affecting Middle-Aged Women","volume":"16","author":"Lee","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1038\/nri.2017.7","article-title":"Dysbiosis and the Immune System","volume":"17","author":"Levy","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.728723","article-title":"Fecal Microbiota Transplantation Controls Progression of Experimental Autoimmune Hepatitis in Mice by Modulating the TFR\/TFH Immune Imbalance and Intestinal Microbiota Composition","volume":"12","author":"Liang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"B46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3948","DOI":"10.1111\/jcmm.14997","article-title":"Dysregulated TFR and TFH Cells Correlate With B-Cell Differentiation and Antibody Production in Autoimmune Hepatitis","volume":"24","author":"Liang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Cell. Mol. Med."},{"key":"B47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"846","DOI":"10.1139\/w10-065","article-title":"Detection of WWE2-Related Lentisphaerae by 16S rRNA Gene Sequencing and Fluorescence in Situ Hybridization in Landfill Leachate","volume":"56","author":"Limam","year":"2010","journal-title":"Can. J. Microbiol."},{"key":"B48","first-page":"5153","article-title":"Abnormal Intestinal Permeability and Microbiota in Patients With Autoimmune Hepatitis","volume":"8","author":"Lin","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Clin. Exp. Pathol."},{"key":"B49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mib.2017.07.003","article-title":"Dysbiotic Proteobacteria Expansion: A Microbial Signature of Epithelial Dysfunction","volume":"39","author":"Litvak","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Microbiol."},{"key":"B50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnutbio.2021.108863","article-title":"Probiotics Alleviate Autoimmune Hepatitis in Mice Through Modulation of Gut Microbiota and Intestinal Permeability","volume":"98","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Nutr. Biochem."},{"key":"B51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1096\/fj.202100939R","article-title":"Novel Approaches to Intervene Gut Microbiota in the Treatment of Chronic Liver Diseases","volume":"35","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"FASEB J."},{"key":"B52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1417","DOI":"10.1111\/apt.15754","article-title":"A Disease-Specific Decline of the Relative Abundance of Bifidobacterium in Patients With Autoimmune Hepatitis","volume":"51","author":"Liwinski","year":"2020","journal-title":"Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"B53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1526","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2012.02.041","article-title":"Inhibition of Interleukin-17 Promotes Differentiation of CD25\u207b Cells Into Stable T Regulatory Cells in Patients With Autoimmune Hepatitis","volume":"142","author":"Longhi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"B54","first-page":"1068","article-title":"The Therapeutic Management of Gut Barrier Leaking: The Emerging Role for Mucosal Barrier Protectors","volume":"19","author":"Lopetuso","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. Rev. Med. Pharmacol. Sci."},{"key":"B55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1136\/gut.44.1.12","article-title":"Dietary Polyamines are Essential Luminal Growth Factors for Small Intestinal and Colonic Mucosal Growth and Development","volume":"44","author":"L\u00f6ser","year":"1999","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"B56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2020.00342","article-title":"Fecal Microbiomes Distinguish Patients With Autoimmune Hepatitis From Healthy Individuals","volume":"10","author":"Lou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol."},{"key":"B57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2018.00758","article-title":"NOD-Like Receptor Protein 3 Inflammasome-Dependent IL-1\u03b2 Accelerated ConA-Induced Hepatitis","volume":"9","author":"Luan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"B58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"671","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.31065","article-title":"Diagnosis and Management of Autoimmune Hepatitis in Adults and Children: 2019 Practice Guidance and Guidelines From the American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases","volume":"72","author":"Mack","year":"2020","journal-title":"Hepatology (Baltimore Md.)"},{"key":"B59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1156","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aar7201","article-title":"Translocation of a Gut Pathobiont Drives Autoimmunity in Mice and Humans","volume":"359","author":"Manfredo Vieira","year":"2018","journal-title":"Science (New York N.Y.)"},{"key":"B60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1038\/nature04754","article-title":"Transforming Growth Factor-Beta Induces Development of the T(H)17 Lineage","volume":"441","author":"Mangan","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"B61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2193","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.23584","article-title":"Diagnosis and Management of Autoimmune Hepatitis","volume":"51","author":"Manns","year":"2010","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"B62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1017\/S0029665120006916","article-title":"SCFA: Mechanisms and Functional Importance in the Gut","volume":"80","author":"Martin-Gallausiaux","year":"2021","journal-title":"Proc. Nutr. Soc."},{"key":"B63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"714","DOI":"10.1016\/s0006-291x(02)02550-0","article-title":"Identification of Membrane-Type Receptor for Bile Acids (M-BAR)","volume":"298","author":"Maruyama","year":"2002","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"B64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2018.07.010","article-title":"The Environmental Sensor AHR Protects From Inflammatory Damage by Maintaining Intestinal Stem Cell Homeostasis and Barrier Integrity","volume":"49","author":"Metidji","year":"2018","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"B65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms20020395","article-title":"Gut-Liver Axis, Gut Microbiota, and Its Modulation in the Management of Liver Diseases: A Review of the Literature","volume":"20","author":"Milosevic","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Mol. Sci."},{"key":"B66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0173032","article-title":"The Dual Role of Short Fatty Acid Chains in the Pathogenesis of Autoimmune Disease Models","volume":"12","author":"Mizuno","year":"2017","journal-title":"PloS One"},{"key":"B67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1038\/nature13684","article-title":"AhR Sensing of Bacterial Pigments Regulates Antibacterial Defence","volume":"512","author":"Moura-Alves","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"B68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7298","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v20.i23.7298","article-title":"Impairment of Innate Immune Responses in Cirrhotic Patients and Treatment by Branched-Chain Amino Acids","volume":"20","author":"Nakamura","year":"2014","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"B69","first-page":"347","article-title":"Branched-Chain Amino Acid Supplementation Does Not Enhance Athletic Performance But Affects Muscle Recovery and the Immune System","volume":"48","author":"Negro","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Sports Med. Phys. Fitness"},{"key":"B70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1681","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1440-1746.2010.06384.x","article-title":"Population-Based Epidemiology Study of Autoimmune Hepatitis: A Disease of Older Women","volume":"25","author":"Ngu","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"B71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1021\/tx7001965","article-title":"The Search for Endogenous Activators of the Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor","volume":"21","author":"Nguyen","year":"2008","journal-title":"Chem. Res. Toxicol."},{"key":"B72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1262","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1223813","article-title":"Host-Gut Microbiota Metabolic Interactions","volume":"336","author":"Nicholson","year":"2012","journal-title":"Science (New York N.Y.)"},{"key":"B73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1870","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1002275","article-title":"IL-1\u03b2 is Overexpressed and Aberrantly Regulated in Corticosteroid Nonresponders With Autoimmune Inner Ear Disease","volume":"186","author":"Pathak","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"B74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1619","DOI":"10.3945\/jn.109.104638","article-title":"Butyrate Enhances the Intestinal Barrier by Facilitating Tight Junction Assembly via Activation of AMP-Activated Protein Kinase in Caco-2 Cell Monolayers","volume":"139","author":"Peng","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"B75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"643","DOI":"10.1172\/jci110079","article-title":"Role of pH in Production of Hydrogen From Carbohydrates by Colonic Bacterial Flora. Studies In Vivo and In Vitro","volume":"67","author":"Perman","year":"1981","journal-title":"J. Clin. Invest."},{"key":"B76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"639","DOI":"10.1038\/nrm908","article-title":"Seven-Transmembrane Receptors","volume":"3","author":"Pierce","year":"2002","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol."},{"key":"B77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0030-1255353","article-title":"Toll-Like Receptor 4 and Hepatic Fibrogenesis","volume":"30","author":"Pradere","year":"2010","journal-title":"Semin. Liver Dis."},{"key":"B78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1038\/nature08821","article-title":"A Human Gut Microbial Gene Catalogue Established by Metagenomic Sequencing","volume":"464","author":"Qin","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"B79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2016.00185","article-title":"Intestinal Short Chain Fatty Acids and Their Link With Diet and Human Health","volume":"7","author":"R\u00edos-Covi\u00e1n","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"B80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2012","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-019-09964-7","article-title":"Small Intestinal Microbial Dysbiosis Underlies Symptoms Associated With Functional Gastrointestinal Disorders","volume":"10","author":"Saffouri","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"B81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2015.00594","article-title":"Interaction of Intestinal Microorganisms With the Human Host in the Framework of Autoimmune Diseases","volume":"6","author":"S\u00e1nchez","year":"2015","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"B82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/srep13320","article-title":"Bile Acids Induce Hepatic Differentiation of Mesenchymal Stem Cells","volume":"5","author":"Sawitza","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"B83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1177\/2050640614520867","article-title":"Gelatin Tannate Ameliorates Acute Colitis in Mice by Reinforcing Mucus Layer and Modulating Gut Microbiota Composition: Emerging Role for 'Gut Barrier Protectors' in IBD","volume":"2","author":"Scaldaferri","year":"2014","journal-title":"United European Gastroenterol. J."},{"key":"B84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.1038\/nature21080","article-title":"Feedback Control of AHR Signalling Regulates Intestinal Immunity","volume":"542","author":"Schiering","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"B85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1597","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2020.01.031","article-title":"Synbiotics Alter Fecal Microbiomes, But Not Liver Fat or Fibrosis, in a Randomized Trial of Patients With Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease","volume":"158","author":"Scorletti","year":"2020","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"B86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.22306","article-title":"Toll-Like Receptors and Adaptor Molecules in Liver Disease: Update","volume":"48","author":"Seki","year":"2008","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"B87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1075","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.jbchem.a021864","article-title":"Ah Receptor, a Novel Ligand-Activated Transcription Factor","volume":"122","author":"Sogawa","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Biochem."},{"key":"B88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1128\/mr.49.1.81-99.1985","article-title":"Polyamines in Microorganisms","volume":"49","author":"Tabor","year":"1985","journal-title":"Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"B89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.1080\/19490976.2015.1056973","article-title":"A Commensal Symbiotic Factor Derived From Bacteroides Fragilis Promotes Human CD39(+)Foxp3(+) T Cells and Treg Function","volume":"6","author":"Telesford","year":"2015","journal-title":"Gut Microbes"},{"key":"B90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2826","DOI":"10.1158\/0008-5472.CAN-08-4466","article-title":"GPR109A is a G-Protein-Coupled Receptor for the Bacterial Fermentation Product Butyrate and Functions as a Tumor Suppressor in Colon","volume":"69","author":"Thangaraju","year":"2009","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"B91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"466","DOI":"10.15252\/embj.201489966","article-title":"Commensal Microbiota Influence Systemic Autoimmune Responses","volume":"34","author":"Van Praet","year":"2015","journal-title":"EMBO J."},{"key":"B92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1038\/nature06881","article-title":"The Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor Links TH17-Cell-Mediated Autoimmunity to Environmental Toxins","volume":"453","author":"Veldhoen","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"B93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2006.01.001","article-title":"TGFbeta in the Context of an Inflammatory Cytokine Milieu Supports De Novo Differentiation of IL-17-Producing T Cells","volume":"24","author":"Veldhoen","year":"2006","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"B94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"688","DOI":"10.1097\/MEG.0b013e3282f5197e","article-title":"Probiotics in Primary Sclerosing Cholangitis: A Randomized Placebo-Controlled Crossover Pilot Study","volume":"20","author":"Vleggaar","year":"2008","journal-title":"Eur. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"B95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02912537","article-title":"IgA Antibodies to Dietary Antigens in Liver Cirrhosis","volume":"17","author":"Volta","year":"1987","journal-title":"Ric. Clin. Lab."},{"key":"B96","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"913","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2012.06.031","article-title":"Transfer of Intestinal Microbiota From Lean Donors Increases Insulin Sensitivity in Individuals With Metabolic Syndrome","volume":"143","author":"Vrieze","year":"2012","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"B97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.taap.2021.115597","article-title":"Gut Microbiome-Host Interactions in Driving Environmental Pollutant Trichloroethene-Mediated Autoimmunity","volume":"424","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol."},{"key":"B98","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.575572","article-title":"Regulatory T Cells in Autoimmune Hepatitis: Unveiling Their Roles in Mouse Models and Patients","volume":"11","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"B99","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.1111\/sji.12515","article-title":"The Inflammation Induced by Lipopolysaccharide can be Mitigated by Short-Chain Fatty Acid, Butyrate, Through Upregulation of IL-10 in Septic Shock","volume":"85","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Scand. J. Immunol."},{"key":"B100","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.651191","article-title":"Aberrant Gut Microbiome Contributes to Intestinal Oxidative Stress, Barrier Dysfunction, Inflammation and Systemic Autoimmune Responses in MRL\/lpr Mice","volume":"12","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"B101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2022.754401","article-title":"Adjuvant Probiotics of Lactobacillus Salivarius Subsp. Salicinius AP-32, L. Johnsonii MH-68, and Bifidobacterium Animalis Subsp. Lactis CP-9 Attenuate Glycemic Levels and Inflammatory Cytokines in Patients With Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus","volume":"13","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Endocrinol. (Lausanne)"},{"key":"B102","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"569","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2018-317836","article-title":"Alterations of Gut Microbiome in Autoimmune Hepatitis","volume":"69","author":"Wei","year":"2020","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"B103","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/srep36365","article-title":"Enterogenous Bacterial Glycolipids are Required for the Generation of Natural Killer T Cells Mediated Liver Injury","volume":"6","author":"Wei","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"B104","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1080\/19490976.2017.1334754","article-title":"Randomized, Controlled Trial Evaluating the Effect of Multi-Strain Probiotic on the Mucosal Microbiota in Canine Idiopathic Inflammatory Bowel Disease","volume":"8","author":"White","year":"2017","journal-title":"Gut Microbes"},{"key":"B105","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2021.792138","article-title":"Long Noncoding RNA and Circular RNA Expression Profiles of Monocyte-Derived Dendritic Cells in Autoimmune Hepatitis","volume":"12","author":"Yang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Pharmacol."},{"key":"B106","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2829","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI90562","article-title":"Intestinal Fungi Contribute to Development of Alcoholic Liver Disease","volume":"127","author":"Yang","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Clin. Invest."},{"key":"B107","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2012.00138","article-title":"Toll-Like Receptors in Liver Fibrosis: Cellular Crosstalk and Mechanisms","volume":"3","author":"Yang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Front. Physiol."},{"key":"B108","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"350","DOI":"10.1002\/oby.23073","article-title":"Fecal Fungi Dysbiosis in Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease","volume":"29","author":"You","year":"2021","journal-title":"Obesity (Silver Spring Md.)"},{"key":"B109","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1536","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.27998","article-title":"A Novel \"Humanized Mouse\" Model for Autoimmune Hepatitis and the Association of Gut Microbiota With Liver Inflammation","volume":"62","author":"Yuksel","year":"2015","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"B110","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"719","DOI":"10.1177\/2050640618756124","article-title":"Receptor-Interacting Protein Kinase 3 Mediates Macrophage\/Monocyte Activation in Autoimmune Hepatitis and Regulates Interleukin-6 Production","volume":"6","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"United European Gastroenterol. J."},{"key":"B111","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.569104","article-title":"Ssp. Lactis 420 Mitigates Autoimmune Hepatitis Through Regulating Intestinal Barrier and Liver Immune Cells","volume":"11","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"B112","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"752","DOI":"10.1038\/mi.2017.118","article-title":"GPR43 Mediates Microbiota Metabolite SCFA Regulation of Antimicrobial Peptide Expression in Intestinal Epithelial Cells via Activation of mTOR and STAT3","volume":"11","author":"Zhao","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mucosal Immunol."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fcimb.2022.947382\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,11]],"date-time":"2022-07-11T14:04:47Z","timestamp":1657548287000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fcimb.2022.947382\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,11]]},"references-count":112,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fcimb.2022.947382"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fcimb.2022.947382","relation":{},"ISSN":["2235-2988"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2235-2988","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,11]]},"article-number":"947382"}}