{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]],"date-time":"2026-09-04T19:52:01Z","timestamp":1788551521165,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":75,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,11]],"date-time":"2024-11-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1731283200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Apigeninidin chloride (APi) is a form of 3-deoxyanthrocyanidins (3-DAs) abundantly produced by the red\n                      <jats:italic>Sorghum bicolor<\/jats:italic>\n                      plant. It has been previously reported to be effective against\n                      <jats:italic>Toxoplasma gondii<\/jats:italic>\n                      (\n                      <jats:italic>T. gondii<\/jats:italic>\n                      ) tachyzoites grown\n                      <jats:italic>in vitro<\/jats:italic>\n                      with less cytotoxic effect. However, its possible mechanism(s) of action has not been elucidated. Biochemically, we discovered that APi induced high reactive oxygen species (ROS) and mitochondria superoxide (MitoSOX) productions in tachyzoites, leading to mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) disruption\n                      <jats:italic>in vitro<\/jats:italic>\n                      .\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>To confirm our biochemical results at the molecular level, we performed a liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) analysis on APi-treated parasites to assess any metabolite and lipid alterations often associated with high ROS\/MitoSOX production in cells.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Noteworthy is that we detected several important oxidative stress-induced metabolites such as hexanal, aldehydes, methyl undeo10-enoate, butadiynyl phenyl ketone, 16-hydroxyhexadecanoic acid (16-OH, 16:0), 2-hydroxytricosanoic acid (C23:0; O), 3-oxodecanosanoic acid (C22:1; O), 2-hydroxypropylsterate, and furan fatty acids F6 (19FU-FA).<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Discussion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      These metabolites are associated with lipid, protein, and nucleic acid disruptions. Using atovaquone (Atov) as a control, we observed that it disrupted intracellular tachyzoites\u2019 mitochondrial membrane potential, increased ROS and MitoSOX production, and altered metabolite and lipid production similar to what was observed with our experimental compound APi. Overall, our results indicated that APi targets\n                      <jats:italic>T. gondii<\/jats:italic>\n                      tachyzoite growth through inducing oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, and eventually parasite death.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2024.1368019","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,11]],"date-time":"2024-11-11T01:11:21Z","timestamp":1731287481000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Apigeninidin chloride disrupts Toxoplasma gondii Mitochondrial membrane potential and induce reactive oxygen species and metabolites production"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Miya Janelle","family":"Moon","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Japhet Senyo","family":"Kamasah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Homa Nath","family":"Sharma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Boakai K.","family":"Robertson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Daniel A.","family":"Abugri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-023-05849-3","article-title":"Quercetin inhibits Toxoplasma gondii tachyzoite proliferation and acts synergically with azithromycin","volume":"16","author":"Abugri","year":"2023","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3387","DOI":"10.1007\/s00436-017-5661-1","article-title":"In vitro antagonistic and indifferent activity of combination of 3-deoxyanthocyanidins against Toxoplasma gondii","volume":"116","author":"Abugri","year":"2017","journal-title":"Parasitol. 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