{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,22]],"date-time":"2026-09-22T07:45:47Z","timestamp":1790063147751,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":58,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,1]],"date-time":"2024-08-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1722470400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>The malaria-causing parasites have to complete a complex infection cycle in the mosquito vector that also involves attack by the insect\u2019s innate immune system, especially at the early stages of midgut infection. However, <jats:italic>Anopheles<\/jats:italic> immunity to the late <jats:italic>Plasmodium<\/jats:italic> sporogonic stages, such as oocysts, has received little attention as they are considered to be concealed from immune factors due to their location under the midgut basal lamina and for harboring an elaborate cell wall comprising an external layer derived from the basal lamina that confers self-properties to an otherwise foreign structure. Here, we investigated whether <jats:italic>Plasmodium berghei<\/jats:italic> oocysts and sporozoites are susceptible to melanization-based immunity in <jats:italic>Anopheles gambiae<\/jats:italic>. Silencing of the negative regulator of melanization response, CLIPA14, increased melanization prevalence without significantly increasing the numbers of melanized oocysts, while co-silencing CLIPA14 with CLIPA2, a second negative regulator of melanization, resulted in a significant increase in melanized oocysts and melanization prevalence. Only late-stage oocysts were found to be melanized, suggesting that oocyst rupture was a prerequisite for melanization-based immune attack, presumably due to the loss of the immune-evasive features of their wall. We also found melanized sporozoites inside oocysts and in the hemocoel, suggesting that sporozoites at different maturation stages are susceptible to melanization. Silencing the melanization promoting factors TEP1 and CLIPA28 rescued oocyst melanization in CLIPA2\/CLIPA14 co-silenced mosquitoes. Interestingly, silencing of CTL4, that protects early stage ookinetes from melanization, had no effect on oocysts and sporozoites, indicating differential regulation of immunity to early and late sporogonic stages. Similar to previous studies addressing ookinete stage melanization, the melanization of <jats:italic>Plasmodium falciparum<\/jats:italic> oocysts was significantly lower than that observed for <jats:italic>P. berghei<\/jats:italic>. In summary, our results provide conclusive evidence that late sporogonic malaria parasite stages are susceptible to melanization, and we reveal distinct regulatory mechanisms for ookinete and oocyst melanization.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2024.1438019","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,1]],"date-time":"2024-08-01T05:10:50Z","timestamp":1722489050000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Late sporogonic stages of Plasmodium parasites are susceptible to the melanization response in Anopheles gambiae mosquitoes"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Suheir","family":"Zeineddine","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sana","family":"Jaber","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sally A.","family":"Saab","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Johnny","family":"Nakhleh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"George","family":"Dimopoulos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mike A.","family":"Osta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1016\/0014-4894(71)90094-4","article-title":"Parasitological review. 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