{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,26]],"date-time":"2026-10-26T17:33:37Z","timestamp":1793036017927,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":65,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,13]],"date-time":"2024-11-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1731456000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Although typhoid fever has largely been eliminated in high-income countries, it remains a major global public health concern especially among low- and middle-income countries. The causative agent, <jats:italic>Salmonella enterica<\/jats:italic> serovar Typhi (<jats:italic>S.<\/jats:italic> Typhi), is a human restricted pathogen with a limited capacity to replicate outside the human host. Human carriers, 90% of whom have gallstones in their gallbladder, continue to shed the pathogen for an ill-defined period of time after treatment. The genetic mechanisms involved in establishing the carrier state are poorly understood, but <jats:italic>S<\/jats:italic>. Typhi is thought to undergo specific genetic changes within the gallbladder as an adaptive mechanism. In the current study, we aimed to identify the genetic differences in longitudinal clinical <jats:italic>S<\/jats:italic>. Typhi isolates from asymptomatic carriers with gallstones in a typhoid endemic setting in Nairobi, Kenya. Whole-genome sequences were analyzed from 22 <jats:italic>S<\/jats:italic>. Typhi isolates, 20 from stool samples, and 2 from blood samples, all genotype 4.3.1 (H58). Out of this, 19 strains were from four patients also diagnosed with gallstones, of whom three had typhoid symptoms and continued to shed <jats:italic>S<\/jats:italic>. Typhi after treatment. All isolates had point mutations in the quinolone resistance-determining region (QRDR), and only sub-lineage 4.3.1.2.EA3 encoded multidrug resistance genes. There was no variation in antimicrobial resistance patterns among strains from the same patient\/household. Non-multidrug resistant (MDR) isolates formed significantly stronger biofilms <jats:italic>in vitro<\/jats:italic> than the MDR isolates, p&amp;lt;0.001. A point mutation within the <jats:italic>treB<\/jats:italic> gene (<jats:italic>treB<\/jats:italic> A383T) was observed in strains isolated after clinical resolution from patients living in 75% of the households. For missense mutations in Vi capsular polysaccharide genes, <jats:italic>tviE<\/jats:italic> P263S was also observed in 18% of the isolates. This study provides insights into the role of typhoid carriage, biofilm formation, AMR genes, and genetic variations in <jats:italic>S.<\/jats:italic> Typhi during asymptomatic carriage.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2024.1468866","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,13]],"date-time":"2024-11-13T11:13:19Z","timestamp":1731496399000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Salmonella Typhi Haplotype 58 biofilm formation and genetic variation in isolates from typhoid fever patients with gallstones in an endemic setting in Kenya"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Peter","family":"Muturi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Peter","family":"Wachira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maina","family":"Wagacha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cecilia","family":"Mbae","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Susan M.","family":"Kavai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michael M.","family":"Mugo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Musa","family":"Mohamed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Juan F.","family":"Gonz\u00e1lez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Samuel","family":"Kariuki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"John S.","family":"Gunn","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4330","DOI":"10.1128\/jcm.02275-14","article-title":"Acid exposure induces multiplication of salmonella enterica serovar typhi","volume":"52","author":"Ahirwar","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. 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