{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,26]],"date-time":"2026-09-26T05:33:13Z","timestamp":1790400793799,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":121,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,16]],"date-time":"2025-04-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1744761600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Urinary tract infection (UTI), a common clinical infectious disease, is marked by high incidence and frequent recurrence. Recurrent UTIs can cause severe complications, negatively affecting health. The emergence and spread of drug-resistant bacteria present significant challenges to UTI treatment. This article systematically reviews the key immune mechanisms in the body\u2019s defense against UTI pathogens. It discusses various immune response components, such as the urinary tract mucosal epithelium, neutrophils, macrophages, dendritic cells, mast cells, innate lymphocytes, T cells, and B cells, with the aim of providing insights for future UTI research.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2025.1540149","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,16]],"date-time":"2025-04-16T00:10:45Z","timestamp":1744762245000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":17,"title":["The immune mechanisms of the urinary tract against infections"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Yilin","family":"Hou","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhuoxuan","family":"Lv","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Quanjie","family":"Hu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aisong","family":"Zhu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hongxia","family":"Niu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1038\/nature14189","article-title":"The biology of innate lymphoid cells","volume":"517","author":"Artis","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1000233","article-title":"FimH adhesin of type 1 fimbriae is a potent inducer of innate antimicrobial responses which requires TLR4 and type 1 interferon signalling","volume":"4","author":"Ashkar","year":"2008","journal-title":"PloS Pathog."},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":", F1","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.194.1.f1","article-title":"The diverse roles of mast cells","volume":"194","author":"Austen","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"642","DOI":"10.1038\/nrneph.2015.105","article-title":"Amplifying renal immunity: the role of antimicrobial peptides in pyelonephritis","volume":"11","author":"Becknell","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Nephrol."},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"860","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2017.07.022","article-title":"Renal sodium gradient orchestrates a dynamic antibacterial defense zone","author":"Berry","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5353","DOI":"10.1128\/iai.00922-07","article-title":"Modulation of host innate immune response in the bladder by uropathogenicEscherichia coli","author":"Billips","year":"2007","journal-title":"Infection Immun."},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1038\/nri.2016.82","article-title":"B cell-T cell interaction: antigen bridge to antigen presentation","volume":"16","author":"Bishop","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"625","DOI":"10.1038\/nm1572","article-title":"Cyclic AMP\u2013regulated exocytosis of Escherichia coli from infected bladder epithelial cells","volume":"13","author":"Bishop","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2015.00466","article-title":"Mucosal-associated invariant T cells in the human gastric mucosa and blood: role in Helicobacter pylori infection","volume":"6","author":"Booth","year":"2015","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"702","DOI":"10.1038\/s41385-020-0269-7","article-title":"Spatial proteomics revealed a CX(3)CL1-dependent crosstalk between the urothelium and relocated macrophages through IL-6 during an acute bacterial infection in the urinary bladder","volume":"13","author":"Bottek","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mucosal Immunol."},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-immunol-101220-032117","article-title":"Tissue immunity in the bladder","volume":"40","author":"Bowyer","year":"2022","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14572","DOI":"10.1096\/fj.202000760R","article-title":"Restriction of chronic Escherichia coli urinary tract infection depends upon T cell-derived interleukin-17, a deficiency of which predisposes to flagella-driven bacterial persistence","volume":"34","author":"Chamoun","year":"2020","journal-title":"FASEB J."},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2012.10.019","article-title":"Mast cell interleukin-10 drives localized tolerance in chronic bladder infection","volume":"38","author":"Chan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4773","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.177.7.4773","article-title":"Renal collecting duct epithelial cells react to pyelonephritis-associated Escherichia coli by activating distinct TLR4-dependent and-independent inflammatory pathways","volume":"177","author":"Chassin","year":"2006","journal-title":"J.\u00a0Immunol."},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1258","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2016.11.003","article-title":"Loss of bladder epithelium induced by cytolytic mast cell granules","author":"Choi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1007\/s11934-020-0969-2","article-title":"Predictors of urinary infections and urosepsis after ureteroscopy for stone disease: a systematic review from EAU section of urolithiasis (EULIS)","volume":"21","author":"Chugh","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Urol. Rep."},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mucimm.2024.12.010","article-title":"Neutrophil NADPH oxidase promotes bacterial eradication and regulates NF-kappaB-Mediated inflammation via NRF2 signaling during urinary tract infections","volume":"24","author":"Cotzomi-Ortega","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mucosal Immunol"},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4171","DOI":"10.1172\/Jci82424","article-title":"Mucosal-associated invariant T cell-rich congenic mouse strain allows functional evaluation","volume":"125","author":"Cui","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Clin. Invest."},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"986","DOI":"10.1038\/ni.2705","article-title":"Tissue-resident macrophages","volume":"14","author":"Davies","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"621","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20181216","article-title":"Type I interferon induces CXCL13 to support ectopic germinal center formation","volume":"216","author":"Denton","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1189\/jlb.4TA0815-391RR","article-title":"Human MAIT-cell responses to Escherichia coli: activation, cytokine production, proliferation, and cytotoxicity","author":"Dias","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Leucocyte Biol."},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"553","DOI":"10.1093\/intimm\/dxt019","article-title":"Mast cell-derived mediators promote murine neutrophil effector functions","author":"Doener","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. Immunol."},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.idc.2013.09.003","article-title":"Urinary tract infection syndromes: occurrence, recurrence, bacteriology, risk factors, and disease burden","volume":"28","author":"Foxman","year":"2014","journal-title":"Infect. Dis. Clin. North Am."},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1194","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.aje.a010170","article-title":"Risk factors for second urinary tract infection among college women","volume":"151","author":"Foxman","year":"2000","journal-title":"Am. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"796","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molimm.2006.04.009","article-title":"Differential effect of insulin treatment on decreased levels of beta-defensins and Toll-like receptors in diabetic rats","volume":"44","author":"Froy","year":"2007","journal-title":"Mol. Immunol."},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3451","DOI":"10.1128\/iai.65.8.3451-3456.1997","article-title":"Role of epithelial interleukin-8 (IL-8) and neutrophil IL-8 receptor A in escherichia coli-induced transuroepithelial neutrophil migration","volume":"65","author":"Gabriela","year":"1997","journal-title":"Infection And Immun."},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1035","DOI":"10.1038\/ni.2109","article-title":"Phenotypic and functional plasticity of cells of innate immunity: macrophages, mast cells and neutrophils","volume":"12","author":"Galli","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1101\/cshperspect.a029181","article-title":"Cell-cell junctions organize structural and signaling networks","volume":"10","author":"Garcia","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cold Spring Harbor Perspect. Biol."},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"524","DOI":"10.1038\/ni.1718","article-title":"Memory T cells in nonlymphoid tissue that provide enhanced local immunity during infection with herpes simplex virus","volume":"10","author":"Gebhardt","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1038\/mi.2016.30","article-title":"MAIT cells reside in the female genital mucosa and are biased towards IL-17 and IL-22 production in response to bacterial stimulation","author":"Gibbs","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mucosal Immunol."},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1007\/s00418-013-1095-8","article-title":"Membrane lipids and proteins as modulators of urothelial endocytic vesicles pathways","volume":"140","author":"Grasso","year":"2013","journal-title":"Histochem. Cell Biol."},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"F869","DOI":"10.1152\/ajprenal.00344.2014","article-title":"Carbonic anhydrase 2 deficiency leads to increased pyelonephritis susceptibility","volume":"307","author":"Hains","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiology-Renal Physiol."},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.17219\/acem\/152704","article-title":"Whole-genome sequencing-based characteristics of Escherichia coli Rize-53 isolate from Turkey","volume":"32","author":"Halbay","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv. Clin. Exp. Med."},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"318","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2025.02.014","article-title":"METs, NETs, and UTIs","volume":"33","author":"Hannan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1797","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1001042","article-title":"Early severe inflammatory responses to uropathogenic E.coli predispose to chronic and recurrent urinary tract infection","volume":"19","author":"Hannan","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Womens Health"},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/iai.00317-23","article-title":"Bladder-draining lymph nodes support germinal center B cell responses during urinary tract infection in mice","volume":"91","author":"Hawas","year":"2023","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/microbiolspec.UTI-0024-2016","article-title":"Innate immune responses to bladder infection","volume":"4","author":"Hayes","year":"2016","journal-title":"Microbiol. Spectr."},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1038\/nature12240","article-title":"Innate lymphoid cells regulate CD4+T cell responses to intestinal commensal bacteria","volume":"498","author":"Hepworth","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1038\/nm1407","article-title":"The antimicrobial peptide cathelicidin protects the lower urinary tract against uropathogenic E.Coli","volume":"32","author":"Hickling","year":"2013","journal-title":"Neurourology Urodynamics"},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"480","DOI":"10.2215\/Cjn.04520413","article-title":"Control of urinary drainage and voiding","volume":"10","author":"Hill","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/mbio.03170-23","article-title":"Androgen exposure impairs neutrophil maturation and function within the infected kidney","volume":"15","author":"Hreha","year":"2024","journal-title":"mBio"},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.01641","article-title":"Androgen-influenced polarization of activin A-producing macrophages accompanies post-pyelonephritic renal scarring","volume":"11","author":"Hreha","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.14814\/phy2.14401","article-title":"TGF\u03b21 orchestrates renal fibrosis following Escherichia coli pyelonephritis","volume":"8","author":"Hreha","year":"2020","journal-title":"Physiol. Rep."},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/advs.202103303","article-title":"Group 3 innate lymphoid cells protect the host from the uropathogenic escherichia coli infection in the bladder","volume":"9","author":"Huang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Sci. (Weinh)"},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2017.06.034","article-title":"Stromal cell-derived factor 1 mediates immune cell attraction upon urinary tract infection","volume":"20","author":"Isaacson","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"B46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1111\/iju.12963","article-title":"Ex vivo construction of a novel model of bioengineered bladder mucosa: A preliminary study","volume":"23","author":"Jaimes-Parra","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Urol."},{"key":"B47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"F1441","DOI":"10.1152\/ajprenal.00583.2019","article-title":"Developmental loss, but not pharmacological suppression, of renal carbonic anhydrase 2 2 results in pyelonephritis susceptibilit","volume":"318","author":"John","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Physiology-Renal Physiol."},{"key":"B48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1170","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhep.2020.01.010","article-title":"Functions of human liver CD69+CD103+CD8+T cells depend on HIF-2\u03b1 activity in healthy and pathologic livers","volume":"72","author":"Kim","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Hepatol."},{"key":"B49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6673","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms7673","article-title":"Molecular mechanisms of NET formation and degradation revealed by intravital imaging in the liver vasculature","volume":"6","author":"Kolaczkowska","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"B50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1078","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2016.10.020","article-title":"Autoimmune renal disease is exacerbated by S1P-receptor-1-dependent intestinal th17 cell migration to the kidney","volume":"45","author":"Krebs","year":"2016","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"B51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/sciimmunol.aba4163","article-title":"Pathogen-induced tissue-resident memory TH17 (TRM17) cells amplify autoimmune kidney disease","volume":"5","author":"Krebs","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Immunol."},{"key":"B52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1322","DOI":"10.1681\/ASN.2018101064","article-title":"Human tissue-resident mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells in renal fibrosis and CKD","volume":"30","author":"Law","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"B53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1385\/IR:34:3:229","article-title":"IL-17A-producing neutrophil-regulatory Tn lymphocytes","volume":"34","author":"Ley","year":"2006","journal-title":"Immunologic Res."},{"key":"B54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.17219\/acem\/94157","article-title":"Preoperative Th1\/Th2 and related cytokines: Prediction value in postoperative febrile UTI after ureteroscopy in patients with ureteral calculi","volume":"28","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"Adv. Clin. Exp. Med."},{"key":"B55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"908","DOI":"10.1038\/s41385-020-0290-x","article-title":"Single cell and tissue-transcriptomic analysis of murine bladders reveals age- and TNFalpha-dependent but microbiota-independent tertiary lymphoid tissue formation","volume":"13","author":"Ligon","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mucosal Immunol"},{"key":"B56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmii.2024.12.007","article-title":"O-antigen of uropathogenic Escherichia coli is required for induction of neutrophil extracellular traps","volume":"58","author":"Lin","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Microbiology Immunol. Infection."},{"key":"B57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"875","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20021290","article-title":"Costimulation via OX40L expressed by B cells is sufficient to determine the extent of primary CD4 cell expansion and Th2 cytokine secretion","volume":"197","author":"Linton","year":"2003","journal-title":"vivo. J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"B58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e00927","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.00927-19","article-title":"Predominance of th1 immune response in pleural effusion of patients\u00a0with tuberculosis among other exudative etiologies","volume":"58","author":"Lisboa","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"B59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1172\/jci.insight.189362","article-title":"The brain-body circuit mediates acute stress-induced anti-inflammatory reflex in bacterial cystitis by suppressing ILC2 activation","author":"Liu","year":"2025","journal-title":"JCI Insight"},{"key":"B60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1216402","article-title":"Pivotal role of tissue-resident memory lymphocytes in\u00a0the control of mucosal infections: can mucosal vaccination induce protective tissue-resident memory T and B cells","author":"Longet","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"B61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1038\/s41585-020-0350-8","article-title":"The immune response to infection in the bladder","volume":"17","author":"Mariano","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Urol."},{"key":"B62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.abc5739","article-title":"Functionally distinct resident macrophage subsets differentially shape responses to infection in the bladder","volume":"6","author":"Mariano","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"B63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms20174241","article-title":"Mast cell responses to viruses and pathogen products","author":"Marshall","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Mol. Sci."},{"key":"B64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-023-00848-y","article-title":"Tissue-specific macrophages: how they develop and choreograph tissue biology","volume":"23","author":"Mass","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol"},{"key":"B65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1172\/jci.insight.180024","article-title":"Tamm-Horsfall protein augments neutrophil NETosis during urinary tract infection","volume":"10","author":"Mercado-Evans","year":"2025","journal-title":"JCI Insight"},{"key":"B66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2016.06.023","article-title":"Ubiquitination of innate immune regulator TRAF3 orchestrates expulsion of intracellular bacteria by exocyst complex","volume":"45","author":"Miao","year":"2016","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"B67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1005044","article-title":"Macrophages subvert adaptive immunity to urinary tract infection","volume":"11","author":"Mora-Bau","year":"2015","journal-title":"PloS Pathog."},{"key":"B68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4110\/in.2024.24.e31","article-title":"A dynamic interplay of innate immune responses during urinary tract infection","volume":"24","author":"Naskar","year":"2024","journal-title":"Immune Network"},{"key":"B69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2963","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI71630","article-title":"\u03b1\u2013Intercalated cells defend the urinary system from bacterial infection","volume":"124","author":"Neal","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Clin. Invest."},{"key":"B70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.00218-20","article-title":"Advances in understanding the human urinary microbiome and its potential role in urinary tract infection","volume":"11","author":"Neugent","year":"2020","journal-title":"mBio"},{"key":"B71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1007457","article-title":"Host restriction of Escherichia coli recurrent urinary tract infection occurs in a bacterial strain-specific manner","volume":"14","author":"O\u2019Brien","year":"2018","journal-title":"PloS Pathog."},{"key":"B72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1625","DOI":"10.1681\/Asn.2015030327","article-title":"Androgens enhance male urinary tract infection severity in a new model","volume":"27","author":"Olson","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Am. Soc. Nephrology"},{"key":"B73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"502","DOI":"10.1016\/j.kint.2018.04.023","article-title":"Androgen exposure potentiates formation of intratubular communities and renal abscesses by","volume":"94","author":"Olson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Kidney International"},{"key":"B74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11934-014-0466-6","article-title":"Production of urothelium from pluripotent stem cells for regenerative applications","volume":"16","author":"Osborn","year":"2014","journal-title":"Curr. Urol. Rep."},{"key":"B75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.2310\/7480.2006.00012","article-title":"Mechanisms of degranulation in neutrophils","volume":"2","author":"Paige","year":"2006","journal-title":"Allergy Asthma Clin. Immuno"},{"key":"B76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"110698","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2022.110698","article-title":"Bladder epithelial cell phosphate transporter inhibition protects mice against uropathogenic infection","volume":"39","author":"Pang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"B77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2018.01941","article-title":"T cell\/B cell collaboration and autoimmunity: an intimate relationship","volume":"9","author":"Petersone","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"B78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6439","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.180.10.6439","article-title":"The physiology of leukocyte recruitment: An in vivo perspective","volume":"180","author":"Petri","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"B79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1381","DOI":"10.1038\/nm.2514","article-title":"The neutrophil in vascular inflammation","author":"Phillipson","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nat.\u00a0Med."},{"key":"B80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-020-00452-4","article-title":"gammadelta T cells in tissue physiology and surveillance","volume":"21","author":"Ribot","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"B81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"526","DOI":"10.2353\/ajpath.2007.060366","article-title":"CXCL1\/KC and CXCL2\/MIP-2 are critical effectors and potential targets for therapy of Escherichia coli O157:H7-associated renal inflammation","volume":"170","author":"Roche","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. J. Pathol."},{"key":"B82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1361","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.194.9.1361","article-title":"Inflammatory chemokine transport and presentation in HEV: A remote control mechanism for monocyte recruitment to lymph nodes in inflamed tissues","author":"Roger","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"B83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1016\/s1074-7613(01)00191-1","article-title":"OX40 promotes Bcl-xL and Bcl-2 expression and is essential for long-term survival of CD4 T cells","volume":"15","author":"Rogers","year":"2001","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"B84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2018.00113","article-title":"Neutrophil: A cell with many roles in inflammation or several cell types","volume":"9","author":"Rosales","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Physiol."},{"key":"B85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/sciimmunol.abn4332","article-title":"Tissue-resident memory T cells mediate mucosal immunity to recurrent urinary tract infection","volume":"8","author":"Rousseau","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Immunol."},{"key":"B86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.2215\/CJN.08880914","article-title":"Collecting duct intercalated cell function and regulation","volume":"10","author":"Roy","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"B87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1681\/Asn.2020030362","article-title":"Neutrophil-macrophage imbalance drives the development of renal scarring during experimental pyelonephritis","author":"Ruiz-Rosado","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"B88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"545","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-36921-z","article-title":"Whole transcriptome analysis of renal intercalated cells predicts lipopolysaccharide mediated inhibition of retinoid X receptor alpha function","author":"Saxena","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Reports 9"},{"key":"B89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2405","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-021-22672-5","article-title":"Kidney intercalated cells are phagocytic and acidify internalized uropathogenic","volume":"12","author":"Saxena","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"B90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"F812","DOI":"10.1152\/ajprenal.00512.2016","article-title":"Cell-specific qRT-PCR of renal epithelial cells reveals a novel innate immune signature in murine collecting duct","volume":"315","author":"Saxena","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiology-Renal Physiol."},{"key":"B91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1172\/jci.insight.122998","article-title":"Sex differences in IL-17 contribute to chronicity in male versus female urinary tract infection","author":"Scharff","year":"2019","journal-title":"JCI Insight"},{"key":"B92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"456","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2014.01.006","article-title":"Crosstalk between sentinel and helper macrophages permits neutrophil\u00a0migration into infected uroepithelium","volume":"56","author":"Schiwon","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cell 1"},{"key":"B93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1016\/j.it.2018.11.001","article-title":"Professional and \u2018Amateur\u2019 Antigen-presenting cells in type 2 immunity","volume":"40","author":"Schuijs","year":"2019","journal-title":"Trends Immunol."},{"key":"B94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"658","DOI":"10.1038\/s41581-023-00737-6","article-title":"Uropathogen and host responses in pyelonephritis","volume":"19","author":"Schwartz","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Nephrol."},{"key":"B95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2024.114007","article-title":"Insulin receptor signaling engages bladder urothelial defenses that limit urinary tract infection","volume":"43","author":"Schwartz","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"B96","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2019.02744","article-title":"High resolution intravital imaging of the renal immune response to injury and infection in mice","volume":"10","author":"Sedin","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"B97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.immunol.23.021704.115653","article-title":"How neutrophils kill microbes","volume":"23","author":"Segal","year":"2005","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"B98","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2283","DOI":"10.1038\/leu.2016.226","article-title":"Human memory B cells","volume":"30","author":"Seifert","year":"2016","journal-title":"Leukemia"},{"key":"B99","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2009.09.004","article-title":"Mast cells augment adaptive immunity by orchestrating dendritic cell trafficking through infected tissues","author":"Shelburne","year":"2009","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"B100","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2014.00448","article-title":"Granule protein processing and regulated secretion in neutrophils","volume":"5","author":"Sheshachalam","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"B101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1910","DOI":"10.2353\/ajpath.2007.060770","article-title":"Control of pseudomonas aeruginosa skin infections in mice is mast cell-dependent","volume":"170","author":"Siebenhaar","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. J. Pathol."},{"key":"B102","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.593058","article-title":"The adipocyte and adaptive immunity","author":"Song","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"B103","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3174","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-018-05674-8","article-title":"PI3K\u03b4 hyper-activation promotes development of B cells that exacerbate Streptococcus pneumoniae infection in an antibody-independent manner","volume":"9","author":"Stark","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat.\u00a0Commun."},{"key":"B104","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7081","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-023-42625-4","article-title":"Tissue-resident B cells orchestrate macrophage polarisation and function","author":"Suchanek","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"B105","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1064","DOI":"10.1038\/ki.2011.257","article-title":"Acute pyelonephritis and renal scarring are caused by dysfunctional innate immunity in mCxcr2 heterozygous mice","author":"Svensson","year":"2011","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"B106","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.1042\/Bst0390349","article-title":"Glycosylation changes as important factors for the susceptibility to urinary tract infection","author":"Taganna","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biochem. Soc. Trans."},{"key":"B107","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2017.01566","article-title":"UroPathogenic escherichia coli (UPEC) infections: virulence factors, bladder responses, antibiotic, and non-antibiotic antimicrobial strategies","author":"Terlizzi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"B108","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1783","DOI":"10.1002\/eji.202048644","article-title":"Tissue-resident mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells in the human kidney represent a functionally distinct subset","author":"Terpstra","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. J. Immunol."},{"key":"B109","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"902","DOI":"10.1172\/jci29919","article-title":"Critical roles for CCR2 and MCP-3 in monocyte mobilization from bone marrow and recruitment to inflammatory sites","volume":"117","author":"Tsou","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Clin. Invest."},{"key":"B110","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/cells10020288","article-title":"CD8 and CD4 T cell populations in human kidneys","volume":"10","author":"van der Putten","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cells"},{"key":"B111","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1054","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2018.07.017","article-title":"Innate lymphoid cells: 10 years on","volume":"174","author":"Vivier","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"B112","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2014.00614","article-title":"Molecular mechanisms that influence the macrophage M1-M2 polarization balance","volume":"5","author":"Wang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"B113","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1841","DOI":"10.2215\/Cjn.07100714","article-title":"Dendritic cells and macrophages: sentinels in the kidney","volume":"10","author":"Weisheit","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"B114","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1155\/2014\/297295","article-title":"Signalling molecules in the urothelium","volume":"2014","author":"Winder","year":"2014","journal-title":"BioMed. Res. Int."},{"key":"B115","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"671","DOI":"10.1038\/s41590-020-0688-3","article-title":"A highly polarized T2 bladder response to infection promotes epithelial repair at the expense of preventing new infections","volume":"21","author":"Wu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"B116","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.21037\/atm.2016.12.71","article-title":"The multiple antibacterial activities of the bladder epithelium","volume":"5","author":"Wu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ann. Trans. Med."},{"key":"B117","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1386","DOI":"10.1038\/nm.2847","article-title":"Infection-induced NETosis is a dynamic process involving neutrophil multitasking","volume":"18","author":"Yipp","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"B118","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2159","DOI":"10.1681\/ASN.2019040335","article-title":"Single-cell transcriptomic map of the human and mouse bladders","volume":"30","author":"Yu","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"B119","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.46677","article-title":"Mucosal infection rewires TNF\u03b1 signaling dynamics to skew susceptibility to recurrence","author":"Yu","year":"2019","journal-title":"eLife"},{"key":"B120","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2019.00351","article-title":"Involvement of vasopressin in the pathogenesis of pulmonary tuberculosis: A new therapeutic target","volume":"10","author":"Zetter","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Endocrinol. (Lausanne)"},{"key":"B121","article-title":"Sex differences in IL-17 contribute to chronicity in male versus female urinary tract infection [J]","volume":"5","author":"Zychlinsky","year":"2019","journal-title":"JCI Insight"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fcimb.2025.1540149\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,16]],"date-time":"2025-04-16T00:10:46Z","timestamp":1744762246000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fcimb.2025.1540149\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,16]]},"references-count":121,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fcimb.2025.1540149"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fcimb.2025.1540149","relation":{},"ISSN":["2235-2988"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2235-2988","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,16]]},"article-number":"1540149"}}