{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,16]],"date-time":"2026-10-16T00:20:02Z","timestamp":1792110002104,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":48,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,28]],"date-time":"2025-04-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1745798400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol."],"abstract":"Background<\/jats:title>Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are a global public health issue, due to their high prevalence and potential impact on pregnancy outcome and fetal health. The objective of this study is to investigate the prevalence of STI-causative pathogens including Chlamydia trachomatis<\/jats:italic> (CT), Neisseria gonorrhoeae<\/jats:italic> (NG) and Ureaplasma urealyticum<\/jats:italic> (UU) as well as the epidemiological characteristics of STIs among males and females of childbearing age in Chengdu.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>Methods<\/jats:title>This retrospective cross-sectional study involved 15,055 participants of childbearing age including 7,235 males and 7,820 females. All specimens of participants were tested for CT, NG, and UU by nucleic acid amplification tests (NAATs) methods.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>Results<\/jats:title>27.80% of the participants were infected with at least one of the three pathogens, with significantly higher overall prevalence in females (45.22%) than males (8.98%, p<\/jats:italic>&lt;0.001). Multivariate logistic regression analysis demonstrated that gender was independently associated with both CT positivity (females vs males, OR 2.276, 95% CI 1.724-3.005, p<\/jats:italic>&lt;0.001) and UU positivity (females vs males, OR 8.079, 95% CI 7.183-9.086, p<\/jats:italic>&lt;0.001). Single infections predominated in both males and females (males: 98.15%; females: 93.16%), while mixed infections were more frequent in females (6.84%) than in males (1.85%). CT prevalence was highest in both males and females aged 18-24, followed by aged 25\u201330 and 31-35. Among aged 18-24, the prevalence of UU in males and NG and UU in females were also higher. Compared to other age groups, mixed infections (CT+NG, CT+UU, NG+UU, CT+NG+UU) were also highest in females aged 18-24. Compared to other clinical diagnostic groups, The prevalence of CT, NG and mixed infection of CT+NG was highest in both males and females in the urogenital inflammation group (p<\/jats:italic>&lt;0.05).<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>Conclusions<\/jats:title>Among the population of childbearing age in Chengdu, China, the prevalence among females was significantly higher than that among males. Single infections predominated in both males and females, while mixed infections occurred more frequently in females. STIs were more prevalent in sexually active young people aged 18-35, especially in the 18\u201324 age group. CT and NG infections in both males and females may cause urogenital inflammation, and mixed infections of CT+NG further elevate the risk of inflammatory responses.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2025.1566163","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,28]],"date-time":"2025-04-28T01:31:45Z","timestamp":1745803905000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Prevalence of Chlamydia trachomatis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, and Ureaplasma urealyticum infections in males and females of childbearing age in Chengdu, China"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Yuwei","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhiyong","family":"Liao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Qin","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Weijun","family":"He","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yao","family":"Deng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chenggui","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"646","DOI":"10.3390\/idr14050070","article-title":"Prevalence of Chlamydia trachomatis, Ureaplasma urealyticum, and Neisseria gonorrhoeae in Asymptomatic Women from Urban-Peripheral and Rural Populations of Cuenca, Ecuador","volume":"14","author":"Abad","year":"2022","journal-title":"Infect. Dis. Rep."},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"631","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-017-2727-8","article-title":"Detection of bacterial pathogens from clinical specimens using conventional microbial culture and 16S metagenomics: a comparative study","volume":"17","author":"Abayasekara","year":"2017","journal-title":"BMC Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/jcla.23072","article-title":"Prevalence of Ureaplasma urealyticum, Chlamydia trachomatis, and Neisseria gonorrhoeae in gynecological outpatients, Taizhou, China","volume":"34","author":"Cai","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clin. Lab. Anal."},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18031038","article-title":"Current and future trends in the laboratory diagnosis of sexually transmitted infections","volume":"18","author":"Caruso","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health"},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1155\/2013\/168742","article-title":"Rapid PCR Detection of Mycoplasma hominis, Ureaplasma urealyticum, and Ureaplasma parvum","volume":"2013","author":"Cunningham","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Bacteriol."},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/2049936120960664","article-title":"A review of current guidelines and research on the management of sexually transmitted infections in adolescents and young adults","volume":"7","author":"Gannon-Loew","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ther. Adv. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"555","DOI":"10.1136\/sextrans-2020-054740","article-title":"Impact of point-of-care testing and treatment of sexually transmitted infections and bacterial vaginosis on genital tract inflammatory cytokines in a cohort of young South African women","volume":"97","author":"Garrett","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sex Transm Infect."},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-nbt.2019.0088","article-title":"Colorimetric-based detection of Ureaplasma urealyticum using gold nanoparticles","volume":"14","author":"Ghorbanzadeh","year":"2020","journal-title":"IET Nanobiotechnol."},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1527","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2013.07.087","article-title":"Toward global prevention of sexually transmitted infections (STIs): the need for STI vaccines","volume":"32","author":"Gottlieb","year":"2014","journal-title":"Vaccine."},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1544","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(24)00266-3","article-title":"WHO global research priorities for sexually transmitted infections","volume":"12","author":"Gottlieb","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet Glob Health"},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.3855\/jidc.11989","article-title":"Assessment of STI screening in Romania using a multiplex PCR technique","volume":"14","author":"Grad","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dev. Ctries."},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"596","DOI":"10.1097\/OLQ.0000000000001655","article-title":"Consumer-based sexually transmitted infection screening among young adult women: the negative influence of the social system","volume":"49","author":"Griner","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sex Transm Dis."},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.4274\/tjod.galenos.2019.80269","article-title":"Evaluation of the prevalence of sexually transmitted bacterial pathogens in Northern Cyprus by nucleic acid amplification tests, and investigation of the relationship between these pathogens and cervicitis","volume":"16","author":"G\u00fcralp","year":"2019","journal-title":"Turk J. Obstet Gynecol."},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S16","DOI":"10.1136\/sextrans-2017-053192","article-title":"Performance and operational characteristics of point-of-care tests for the diagnosis of urogenital gonococcal infections","volume":"93","author":"Guy","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sex Transm Infect."},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1016\/j.idc.2023.02.007","article-title":"Update on the epidemiology, screening, and management of chlamydia trachomatis infection","volume":"37","author":"Hocking","year":"2023","journal-title":"Infect. Dis. Clin. North Am."},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"416","DOI":"10.1136\/sextrans-2022-055576","article-title":"PivNG primers and probes set used in the cobas omni Utility Channel is a reliable supplemental test for detection of Neisseria gonorrhoeae in oropharyngeal, urogenital and rectal specimens collected in cobas PCR Media","volume":"99","author":"Hopkins","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sex Transm Infect."},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.ss6507a1","article-title":"Neisseria gonorrhoeae antimicrobial susceptibility surveillance - the gonococcal isolate surveillance project, 27 sites, United States, 2014","volume":"65","author":"Kirkcaldy","year":"2016","journal-title":"MMWR Surveill Summ."},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"651","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-018-3580-0","article-title":"Comparison of rRNA-based and DNA-based nucleic acid amplifications for detection of Chlamydia trachomatis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, and Ureaplasma urealyticum in urogenital swabs","volume":"18","author":"Liang","year":"2018","journal-title":"BMC Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-021-06966-z","article-title":"Analysis of Ureaplasma urealyticum, Chlamydia trachomatis, Mycoplasma genitalium and Neisseria gonorrhoeae infections among obstetrics and gynecological outpatients in southwest China: a retrospective study","volume":"22","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"BMC Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diagmicrobio.2024.116394","article-title":"Prevalence of Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Chlamydia trachomatis, Ureaplasma urealyticum among outpatients in central China: A retrospective study","volume":"110","author":"Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1186\/s12905-023-02259-6","article-title":"Analyses of human papillomavirus, Chlamydia trachomatis, Ureaplasma urealyticum, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, and co-infections in a gynecology outpatient clinic in Haikou area, China","volume":"23","author":"Lu","year":"2023","journal-title":"BMC Womens Health"},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.4103\/ijmm.IJMM_20_312","article-title":"A systematic review and meta-analysis of different diagnostic procedures to detect gonococcus infection in resource-limited scenario","volume":"38","author":"Mallik","year":"2020","journal-title":"Indian J. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.1186\/s13063-022-06400-y","article-title":"Sexually transmitted infection screening to prevent adverse birth and newborn outcomes: study protocol for a randomized-controlled hybrid-effectiveness trial","volume":"23","author":"Medina-Marino","year":"2022","journal-title":"Trials."},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms4030025","article-title":"Diagnostic procedures to detect chlamydia trachomatis infections","volume":"4","author":"Meyer","year":"2016","journal-title":"Microorganisms."},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens9020091","article-title":"The laboratory diagnosis of neisseria gonorrhoeae: current testing and future demands","volume":"9","author":"Meyer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pathogens."},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1007\/s00430-019-00651-4","article-title":"Multiresistant Neisseria gonorrhoeae: a new threat in second decade of the XXI century","volume":"209","author":"M\u0142ynarczyk-Bonikowska","year":"2020","journal-title":"Med. Microbiol. Immunol."},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1742-6405-11-31","article-title":"High prevalence and incidence of sexually transmitted infections among women living in Kwazulu-Natal, South Africa","volume":"11","author":"Naidoo","year":"2014","journal-title":"AIDS Res. Ther."},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2024.1445300","article-title":"Vaginal microbiota of pregnant women with Ureaplasma urealyticum and Mycoplasma hominis infections","volume":"14","author":"Oh","year":"2024","journal-title":"Front. Cell Infect. Microbiol."},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2020.101935","article-title":"Prevalence and correlated factors of sexually transmitted infections among women attending a Korean sexual assault center","volume":"71","author":"Park","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Forensic Leg Med."},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.12659\/MSM.920873","article-title":"Progress and perspectives in point of care testing for urogenital chlamydia trachomatis infection: A review","volume":"26","author":"Peng","year":"2020","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Monit."},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S86","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiab016","article-title":"Multipeptide assays for sensitive and differential detection of anti-chlamydia trachomatis antibodies","volume":"224","author":"Rahman","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1097\/OLQ.0000000000000696","article-title":"The etiology of male urethral discharge in Zimbabwe: results from the Zimbabwe STI etiology study","volume":"45","author":"Rietmeijer","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sex Transm Dis."},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/jpm13071170","article-title":"Chlamydial and gonococcal genital infections: A narrative review","volume":"13","author":"Rodrigues","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Pers. Med."},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"652","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-016-1976-2","article-title":"Comparing culture and molecular methods for the identification of microorganisms involved in necrotizing soft tissue infections","volume":"16","author":"Rudkj\u00f8bing","year":"2016","journal-title":"BMC Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1779","DOI":"10.1099\/jmm.0.034116-0","article-title":"A laboratory-based evaluation of the BioStar Optical ImmunoAssay point-of-care test for diagnosing Neisseria gonorrhoeae infection","volume":"60","author":"Samarawickrama","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2151","DOI":"10.1080\/01443615.2022.2035328","article-title":"Evaluation of Ureaplasma urealyticum, Chlamydia trachomatis, Mycoplasma genitalium and Neisseria gonorrhoeae in infertile women compared to pregnant women","volume":"42","author":"Sameni","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Obstet Gynaecol."},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diagmicrobio.2015.08.005","article-title":"Comparison between conventional culture and NAATs for the microbiological diagnosis in gonococcal infection","volume":"83","author":"Serra-Pladevall","year":"2015","journal-title":"Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0463.2008.00929.x","article-title":"Comparison of microscopy, culture and in-house PCR and NASBA assays for diagnosis of Neisseria gonorrhoeae in Russia","volume":"116","author":"Shipitsyna","year":"2008","journal-title":"APMIS."},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2022.10.009","article-title":"Infectious vaginitis, cervicitis, and pelvic inflammatory disease","volume":"107","author":"Shroff","year":"2023","journal-title":"Med. Clin. North Am."},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2021.704037","article-title":"A new multiplex genetic detection assay method for the rapid semi-quantitative detection of six common curable sexually transmitted pathogens from the genital tract","volume":"11","author":"Sun","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Cell Infect. Microbiol."},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2021.23487","article-title":"Diagnosis and treatment of sexually transmitted infections: A review","volume":"327","author":"Tuddenham","year":"2022","journal-title":"JAMA."},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1116","DOI":"10.1038\/s41564-022-01177-x","article-title":"Sexually transmitted infections and female reproductive health","volume":"7","author":"Van Gerwen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Microbiol."},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0250044","article-title":"Etiologies of genital inflammation and ulceration in symptomatic Rwandan men and women responding to radio promotions of free screening and treatment services","volume":"16","author":"Wall","year":"2021","journal-title":"PloS One"},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e00203","DOI":"10.1128\/CVI.00203-17","article-title":"Chlamydia trachomatis: the persistent pathogen","volume":"24","author":"Witkin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Vaccine Immunol."},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms221910815","article-title":"Culturomics approaches expand the diagnostic accuracy for sexually transmitted infections","volume":"22","author":"Wolf","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Mol. Sci."},{"key":"B46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.rr7004a1","article-title":"Sexually transmitted infections treatment guidelines, 2021","volume":"70","author":"Workowski","year":"2021","journal-title":"MMWR Recomm Rep."},{"key":"B47","unstructured":"2024"},{"key":"B48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"541","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(21)00448-5","article-title":"Global burden and trends of sexually transmitted infections from 1990 to 2019: an observational trend study","volume":"22","author":"Zheng","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."}],"updated-by":[{"DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2025.1662536","type":"corrigendum","label":"Corrigendum","source":"publisher","updated":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,1]],"date-time":"2025-08-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1754006400000}}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fcimb.2025.1566163\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,1]],"date-time":"2025-08-01T08:53:38Z","timestamp":1754038418000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fcimb.2025.1566163\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,28]]},"references-count":48,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fcimb.2025.1566163"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fcimb.2025.1566163","relation":{"corrigendum":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.3389\/fcimb.2025.1662536","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["2235-2988"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2235-2988","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,28]]},"article-number":"1566163"}}