{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,10]],"date-time":"2026-07-10T23:34:11Z","timestamp":1783726451319,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":139,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,15]],"date-time":"2025-08-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1755216000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>The human T-cell lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1) is a highly oncogenic retrovirus recognized as the causative agent of adult T-cell leukemia\/lymphoma (ATLL) and HTLV-1-associated myelopathy\/tropical spastic paraparesis (HAM\/TSP). Among the key risk factors for ATLL development are high proviral load, reduced anti-Tax immune responses, and elevated levels of soluble interleukin-2 receptor. Unlike classical oncogenic viruses, HTLV-1 does not encode proto-oncogenes but instead drives cellular transformation through a combination of mechanisms, including viral gene dysregulation, chromatin remodeling, epigenetic reprogramming, persistent clonal expansion, immune evasion, and RNA-based modifications. Despite growing understanding of these molecular pathways, an effective prophylactic vaccine against HTLV-1 remains unavailable. However, several vaccine strategies including viral vector platforms, mRNA-based candidates, peptide vaccines, and dendritic cell-based approaches have shown promise in preclinical models. In this review, we provide a comprehensive synthesis of current knowledge on HTLV-1 oncogenesis, highlight the roles of viral proteins such as Tax and HBZ in immune evasion, and critically examine the state of vaccine development efforts aimed at controlling this neglected human retrovirus.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2025.1587802","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,15]],"date-time":"2025-08-15T05:29:30Z","timestamp":1755235770000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Human T-cell leukemia virus type 1: oncogenic potential and vaccine development strategies"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Jorge","family":"Vasconez-Gonzalez","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Isaac A.","family":"Su\u00e1rez-Sangucho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Esteban","family":"Acosta-Mu\u00f1oz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Luis Paz y","family":"Mi\u00f1o","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Domenic","family":"Borja-Mendoza","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"John Altamirano","family":"Alexander-Castillo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Julia","family":"Saa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Natasha","family":"Salazar-Calvopi\u00f1a","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pa\u00fal","family":"C\u00e1rdenas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andr\u00e9s","family":"L\u00f3pez-Cort\u00e9s","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Esteban","family":"Ortiz-Prado","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1768","DOI":"10.1080\/15384101.2020.1779455","article-title":"The effect of alcoholic extract from Eucalyptus camaldulensis leaves on HTLV-1 Tax activities","volume":"19","author":"Abu-Jafar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Cycle Georget. 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