{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T00:24:08Z","timestamp":1759969448930,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":65,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,8]],"date-time":"2025-10-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1759881600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol."],"abstract":"<jats:sec><jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title><jats:p><jats:italic>Streptococcus mutans<\/jats:italic> and <jats:italic>Candida albicans<\/jats:italic> are key pathogens in dental caries and oral candidiasis. While <jats:italic>Lactiplantibacillus plantarum<\/jats:italic> and the prebiotic galactooligosaccharides (GOS) have been shown to inhibit these pathogens and their interactions in biofilm and planktonic models, their effects and mechanisms in an oral mucosal context remain unclear.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>This study investigated the impact of <jats:italic>L. plantarum<\/jats:italic>, alone and in combination with GOS, using an oral mucosal model. The analyses focused on pathogen viability, adhesion, transmigration, virulence expression, mucosal barrier integrity, inflammatory response, extracellular polysaccharide production, and metabolism.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p><jats:italic>L. plantarum<\/jats:italic> reduced the viability of <jats:italic>S. mutans<\/jats:italic>, inhibited the adhesion of both pathogens to the oral mucosa, and decreased the transmigration of <jats:italic>S. mutans<\/jats:italic> through the mucosal membrane. It also attenuated the virulence of <jats:italic>C. albicans<\/jats:italic> by inhibiting hyphae formation and gene expression. Furthermore, <jats:italic>L. plantarum<\/jats:italic> helped maintain mucosal barrier integrity by mitigating the epithelial inflammatory response induced by the pathogens. The combination of GOS and <jats:italic>L. plantarum<\/jats:italic> significantly reduced pathogenic extracellular polysaccharide production by S. mutans, creating a metabolic microenvironment less conducive to the survival and interaction of both pathogens. Notably, <jats:italic>L. plantarum<\/jats:italic> significantly altered the metabolic landscape of these pathogens, especially under GOS conditions.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Discussion<\/jats:title><jats:p>These findings demonstrate that <jats:italic>L. plantarum<\/jats:italic>, particularly when combined with GOS, exerts inhibitory effects on <jats:italic>S. mutans<\/jats:italic> and <jats:italic>C. albicans<\/jats:italic> in an oral mucosal model through metabolic and immunologic regulation. The results highlight the potential of synbiotic strategies (probiotics and prebiotics) for preventing and mitigating oral diseases involving the mucosal barrier and the pathogenesis of <jats:italic>S. mutans<\/jats:italic> and <jats:italic>C. albicans<\/jats:italic>.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2025.1652490","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,8]],"date-time":"2025-10-08T05:39:21Z","timestamp":1759901961000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Metabolic modulation and multi-species interaction: Lactiplantibacillus plantarum\u2019s impact on Streptococcus mutans-Candida albicans in a mucosal model"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Ting","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yan","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Lanxin","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Hiba","family":"Alyami","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Nora","family":"Alomeir","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Tongtong","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jin","family":"Xiao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S91","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0265852","article-title":"Fluctuations in quality of life and immune responses during the intravenous immunoglobulin infusion cycles","volume":"41","author":"Abbott","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. 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