{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T17:20:28Z","timestamp":1790875228516,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":103,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,2]],"date-time":"2026-02-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1769990400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Thyroid dysfunction is a common endocrine disease among women of childbearing age, which seriously affects reproductive health. From an immunological perspective, this in-depth analysis clarifies the complex relationship between thyroid function and female reproduction. We studied the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis regulation by thyroid hormones through direct and indirect mechanisms, including metabolic mediators such as prolactin and leptin. Recent studies have shown that inflammatory cytokines (IL-1\u03b1, IL-1\u03b2, IL-6, IFN-\u03b3, and TNF-\u03b1) severely disrupt the production pathways of thyroid hormones, establishing an essential link between immune activation and reproductive problems. Since the placenta serves as an active immune interface affected by thyroid activity, there are significant physiological obstacles (including increased iodine clearance and elevated deiodinase activity), immunological challenges (such as altered cytokine profiles), and pathological barriers to optimal thyroid adaptation during pregnancy. This literature review indicates that thyroid problems substantially affect reproductive outcomes by altering the immune response at the maternal-fetal interface, influencing placental development, trophoblast invasion, and vascular remodeling. This review addresses a notable research deficiency through a modern perspective on thyroid dysfunction and reproductive issues, especially inflammatory cytokines related to preeclampsia. We believe that thyroid dysfunction can alter the expression of specific angiogenic factors (including sFlt-1, PlGF, and VEGF) and modify the immune cell profile at the maternal-fetal interface (particularly NK cells, macrophages, and T regulatory cells), creating a new framework for understanding and addressing thyroid-related reproductive diseases through targeted immunomodulatory strategies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2025.1653380","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,2]],"date-time":"2026-02-02T06:33:18Z","timestamp":1770013998000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Thyroid-reproductive axis interplay: immunological mechanisms and implications for female reproductive health"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Sisi","family":"Chen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Gynecology, Taihe Hospital, Hubei University of Medicine","place":["Shiyan, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shahid Ullah","family":"Khan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Dubai Medical University (COM, DMU)","place":["Dubai, United Arab Emirates"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Safir Ullah","family":"Khan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Science at the Microscale, School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China","place":["Hefei, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mohammed","family":"Alissa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Laboratory, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University","place":["Al-Kharj, Saudi Arabia"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Essam H.","family":"Ibrahim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biology Department, Faculty of Science, King Khalid University","place":["Abha, Saudi Arabia"]},{"name":"Blood Products Quality Control and Research Department, National Organization for Research and Control of Biologicals","place":["Cairo, Egypt"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Saleem","family":"Ahmad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, University of Kansas Medical Center","place":["Kansas City, KS, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ramadan","family":"Taha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biology Department, Faculty of Science, King Khalid University","place":["Abha, Saudi Arabia"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kun","family":"Zhou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Vascular Surgery, Taihe Hospital, Hubei University of Medicine","place":["Shiyan, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","first-page":"1","article-title":"Thyroid dysfunction among adults in Bahrain: A hospital-based study","volume":"41","author":"Abdulla","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neuro Endocrinol. 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