{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,19]],"date-time":"2026-08-19T17:34:24Z","timestamp":1787160864615,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":38,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,14]],"date-time":"2025-11-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1763078400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>We aimed to investigate the impact of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak on the genetic diversity and clinical severity of rhinovirus (RV) in acute respiratory tract infection (ARTI) cases in Kunming, China.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>A total of 25,769 patients with ARTI from September 1, 2019 to December 31, 2023 were enrolled. Patients with COVID-19 were excluded from the study. Nasopharyngeal swabs were collected and screened for RV using multiplex reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction. RV-positive samples underwent nested PCR targeting the VP4\/VP2 region. The amplified products were sequenced for genotype identification.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>A total of 1,017 RV-positive cases were identified (detection rate 3.95%; 1,017\/25,769), and all three RV species\u2014RV-A, RV-B, and RV-C\u2014were detected; RV-A was the most prevalent. Overall, 128 distinct RV genotypes, 40 untyped strains, and 1 recombinant strain (A1B) were identified. The predominant genotypes differed between age groups: those &amp;lt;18 years were mainly infected with C-untyped, A36, and A12, whereas those \u226518 years had C1, B52, and A60. Among RV-positive cases, 42.97% were associated with lower respiratory tract infections (LRTI), mainly caused by RV-A and RV-C. RV-C was associated with higher C-reactive protein and procalcitonin. Co-occurrences were recorded in 24.98% (254\/1,017) of RV-positive cases and were associated with prolonged hospitalization. RV exhibited no clear seasonal pattern; however, following the COVID-19 outbreak, RV-C was replaced by RV-A.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>RV remains endemic with significant genetic diversity in the region. The COVID-19 pandemic led to a notable shift in the dominant circulating species from RV-A to RV-C. Emerging mutant strains have contributed to increased disease severity. Both RV-C and RV-A contribute to LRTI in children.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2025.1678343","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,14]],"date-time":"2025-11-14T06:22:41Z","timestamp":1763101361000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Epidemiological shift and clinical characteristics of rhinovirus genotypes in acute respiratory tract infection cases in Kunming, China, from 2019 to 2023"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Guiqian","family":"Zhang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Limei","family":"Ba","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Luping","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ting","family":"Su","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hongyan","family":"Zhu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ya","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yufan","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yafei","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xin","family":"Fan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jinxiu","family":"Wan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jianmei","family":"Gao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hailong","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Min","family":"Su","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.1097\/INF.0000000000004139","article-title":"Human rhinovirus as a cause of fever in neonates and young infants during the COVID-19 pandemic 2020-2022","volume":"43","author":"Aizawa","year":"2024","journal-title":"Pediatr. 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