{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,14]],"date-time":"2026-07-14T12:28:01Z","timestamp":1784032081619,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":64,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,5]],"date-time":"2026-01-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1767571200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Airborne particulate matter (PM), particularly fine (PM\n                      <jats:sub>2.5<\/jats:sub>\n                      ) and coarse (PM\n                      <jats:sub>10<\/jats:sub>\n                      ) particles, is a major environmental health concern linked to increased respiratory morbidity and mortality. During the COVID-19 pandemic, epidemiological studies suggested that PM exposure may worsen SARS-CoV-2 infection outcomes; however, cellular mechanisms underlying this association remain incompletely understood. Here, we investigated how pre-exposure to PM\n                      <jats:sub>2.5<\/jats:sub>\n                      and PM\n                      <jats:sub>10<\/jats:sub>\n                      impacts SARS-CoV-2 infection dynamics in Calu-3 human epithelial cells.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Calu-3 cells were pre-exposed to PM for 72 h prior to infection with either the wild-type Wuhan strain or the more virulent Delta variant for additional 48 h. Viral infection, receptor expression, apoptosis and cytokine responses were assessed.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      PM\n                      <jats:sub>10<\/jats:sub>\n                      , but not PM\n                      <jats:sub>2.5<\/jats:sub>\n                      , enhanced Delta variant infection, increasing the proportion of infected cells by 13.7% and viral titers by 2.6-fold compared with controls. This enhancement was not attributable to changes in ACE2 receptor expression or viral entry efficiency but instead impaired antiviral defenses. PM10 pre-exposure suppressed apoptosis and reduced the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines including IFN-\u03b3, IP-10, and TNF-\u03b1 during Delta infection.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Discussion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      These findings suggest that PM\n                      <jats:sub>10<\/jats:sub>\n                      compromise epithelial antiviral response by dampening apoptotic cell clearance and inflammatory responses, thereby creating a cellular condition more permissive to viral replication. Our study provides a mechanistic basis by which particulate air pollution may amplify SARS-CoV-2 pathogenicity in a variant-specific manner. These results underscore further validation in physiologically relevant systems and highlight the potential public health implications of air pollution during viral pandemics.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2025.1694050","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,5]],"date-time":"2026-01-05T07:43:55Z","timestamp":1767599035000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Particulate matter exposure potentiates SARS-CoV-2 delta variant infection by suppressing epithelial antiviral responses"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Supasek","family":"Kongsomros","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jiraporn","family":"Paha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Phayungsap","family":"Prasara-a","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sopita","family":"Visamol","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pinnakarn","family":"Techapichetvanich","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Apisada","family":"Jiso","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kwanchanok","family":"Uppakara","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ardythe L.","family":"Morrow","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alexander W.","family":"Thorman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Somchai","family":"Chutipongtanate","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Phisit","family":"Khemawoot","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Arunee","family":"Thitithanyanont","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"166","DOI":"10.1007\/s13181-011-0203-1","article-title":"Clearing the air: a review of the effects of particulate matter air pollution on human health","volume":"8","author":"Anderson","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. 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