{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,13]],"date-time":"2026-09-13T11:02:57Z","timestamp":1789297377117,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":105,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,13]],"date-time":"2025-11-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1762992000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    Pulmonary tuberculosis, caused by\n                    <jats:italic>Mycobacterium tuberculosis<\/jats:italic>\n                    (Mtb), remains one of the leading causes of infectious disease-related mortality worldwide. In parallel, lung cancer represents the most lethal neoplasm, with high mortality rates globally. Emerging studies suggest that chronic Mtb infection may contribute to the development of lung cancer, particularly adenocarcinoma. Several biological mechanisms support this hypothesis. Chronic inflammation from tuberculosis creates a microenvironment enriched in proinflammatory cytokines, reactive oxygen species (ROS), and growth factors that favor cell proliferation, genomic instability, angiogenesis, and immune evasion, which are considered classic hallmarks of cancer. Additionally, both protein and non-protein virulence factors of Mtb have been shown to interfere with critical cellular signaling pathways related to tumor cell survival and invasion. Clinically, multiple observational studies and meta-analyses report an increased incidence of lung cancer among individuals with a history of tuberculosis, especially when both conditions coexist in the same pulmonary regions. Specific mutations, including EGFR, have been identified in patients with prior tuberculosis, influencing both prognosis and therapeutic response. Nevertheless, key questions remain regarding the causal nature of this association, the role of Mtb strains, and the molecular factors such as epigenetic modifications or the lung microbiome. This review proposes that infection with Mtb could function as a carcinogenic agent. Further\n                    <jats:italic>in vitro<\/jats:italic>\n                    experiments, cellular models, and clinical investigations are urgently needed to support potential reclassification of this pathogen by international agencies such as the IARC.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2025.1697874","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,13]],"date-time":"2025-11-13T10:39:43Z","timestamp":1763030383000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Reprogramming the host: Mycobacterium tuberculosis as a silent architect of the immuno-tumoral"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Rodolfo L.","family":"Ch\u00e1vez-Dom\u00ednguez","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Martha","family":"Torres","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Atziri A.","family":"Acevedo-Dom\u00ednguez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jes\u00fas A.","family":"Ibarra-Inocente","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Claudia","family":"Carranza","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jctube.2024.100458","article-title":"Mycobacterium tuberculosis and host interactions in the manifestation of tuberculosis","volume":"36","author":"Abbasnia","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Clin. Tuberc Mycobact Dis."},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1080\/23744235.2021.2006772","article-title":"Previous pulmonary tuberculosis enhances the risk of lung cancer: systematic reviews and meta-analysis","volume":"54","author":"Abdeahad","year":"2022","journal-title":"Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.5588\/ijtld.24.0491","article-title":"The interplay between TB and lung cancer: risk, prognosis and treatment dynamics","volume":"29","author":"Afifah","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Tuberc Lung Dis."},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/emi.2016.10","article-title":"Updates on the risk factors for latent tuberculosis reactivation and their managements","volume":"5","author":"Ai","year":"2016","journal-title":"Emerg. Microbes Infect."},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micpath.2023.106292","article-title":"The molecular mechanisms of virus-induced human cancers","volume":"183","author":"Ameya","year":"2023","journal-title":"Microb. Pathog."},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11386","DOI":"10.1128\/jvi.01236-12","article-title":"Peptide interactions stabilize and restructure human papillomavirus type 16 E6 to interact with p53","volume":"86","author":"Ansari","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"B7","first-page":"1","volume-title":"Global tuberculosis report 2024","year":"2024"},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5772\/intechopen.72027","article-title":"Virulence factors and pathogenicity of mycobacterium","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mycobacterium - Res. Dev"},{"key":"B9","unstructured":"Echeverria-Valencia\n              G.\n            \n            \n              Flores-Villalva\n              S.\n            \n            \n              Espitia\n              C. I\n            \n          \n          List of classifications"},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.4103\/2278-330X.96507","article-title":"Pulmonary tuberculosis as differential diagnosis of lung cancer","volume":"1","author":"Bhatt","year":"2012","journal-title":"South Asian J. Cancer"},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0214088","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0214088","article-title":"Reference set of Mycobacterium tuberculosis clinical strains: A tool for research and product development","volume":"14","author":"Borrell","year":"2019","journal-title":"PloS One"},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.3322\/caac.21834","article-title":"Global cancer statistics 2022: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries","volume":"74","author":"Bray","year":"2024","journal-title":"CA Cancer J. Clin."},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2022.111817","article-title":"Macrophage NFATC2 mediates angiogenic signaling during mycobacterial infection","volume":"41","author":"Brewer","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22179394","article-title":"Links between infections, lung cancer, and the immune system","volume":"22","author":"Budisan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Mol. Sci."},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41419-018-1237-y","article-title":"Mycobacterium tuberculosis antigens repress Th1 immune response suppression and promotes lung cancer metastasis through PD-1\/PDl-1 signaling pathway","volume":"10","author":"Cao","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cell Death Dis."},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11274-023-03636-x","article-title":"Clinical manifestations and immune response to tuberculosis","volume":"39","author":"Carabal\u00ed-Isajar","year":"2023","journal-title":"World J. Microbiol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s42003-020-01318-0","article-title":"Lung gene expression signatures suggest pathogenic links and molecular markers for pulmonary tuberculosis, adenocarcinoma and sarcoidosis","volume":"3","author":"Chai","year":"2020","journal-title":"Commun. Biol."},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1121","DOI":"10.1186\/s12885-020-07622-6","article-title":"The effect of anti-cancer and anti-tuberculosis treatments in lung cancer patients with active tuberculosis: a retrospective analysis","volume":"20","author":"Chai","year":"2020","journal-title":"BMC Cancer"},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e498","DOI":"10.1093\/oncolo\/oyad340","article-title":"Increased tuberculosis reactivation risk in patients receiving immune checkpoint inhibitor-based therapy","volume":"29","author":"Chen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Oncologist"},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1477-7819-5-22","article-title":"Lung cancer in patients with tuberculosis","volume":"5","author":"Cic\u0117nas","year":"2007","journal-title":"World J. Surg. Oncol."},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1900655","DOI":"10.1183\/13993003.00655-2019","article-title":"The global prevalence of latent tuberculosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"54","author":"Cohen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.820134","article-title":"In the thick of it: formation of the tuberculous granuloma and its effects on host and therapeutic responses","volume":"13","author":"Cronan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1186\/s40248-015-0034-z","article-title":"DNA damage and cellular abnormalities in tuberculosis, lung cancer and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease","volume":"10","author":"Da Silva","year":"2015","journal-title":"Multidiscip Respir. Med."},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.1128\/mmbr.00010-14","article-title":"Latent tuberculosis infection: myths, models, and molecular mechanisms","volume":"78","author":"Dutta","year":"2014","journal-title":"Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev."},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1650","DOI":"10.1056\/nejm198612253152606","article-title":"Tumors: Wounds that do not heal. Similarities between tumor stroma generation and wound healing","volume":"315","author":"Dvorak","year":"1986","journal-title":"N Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1170","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1462-5822.2009.01335.x","article-title":"Mycobacterial survival strategies in the phagosome: defence against host stresses","volume":"11","author":"Ehrt","year":"2009","journal-title":"Cell Microbiol."},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2003","DOI":"10.2147\/idr.s309051","article-title":"Role of bacteria in the incidence of common GIT cancers: the dialectical role of integrated bacterial DNA in human carcinogenesis","volume":"14","author":"Elagan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Infect. Drug Resist."},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.canep.2023.102402","article-title":"Latin America and the Caribbean Code Against Cancer 1st Edition: 17 cancer prevention recommendations to the public and to policy-makers (World Code Against Cancer Framework)","volume":"86","author":"Espina","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cancer Epidemiol."},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2025.1561719","article-title":"Where lung cancer and tuberculosis intersect: recent advances","volume":"16","author":"Fang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5329","DOI":"10.7150\/jca.97898","article-title":"Tuberculosis to lung cancer: application of tuberculosis signatures in identification of lung adenocarcinoma subtypes and marker screening","volume":"15","author":"Feng","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Cancer"},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"767","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2006.01.034","article-title":"Anti-immunology: evasion of the host immune system by bacterial and viral pathogens","volume":"124","author":"Finlay","year":"2006","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"487","DOI":"10.1007\/s00203-018-1587-y","article-title":"Free radical stress induces DNA damage response in RAW264.7 macrophages during Mycobacterium smegmatis infection","volume":"201","author":"Ghosh","year":"2019","journal-title":"Arch. Microbiol."},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0313306","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0313306","article-title":"Human-immunodeficiency virus infection associated with the impaired Th1 and pro-inflammatory cytokine response in latent tuberculosis-infected individuals: A comparative cross-sectional study","volume":"19","author":"Girmay","year":"2024","journal-title":"PloS One"},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cellimm.2015.11.007","article-title":"Mycobacterium tuberculosis H37Rv infected THP-1 cells induce epithelial mesenchymal transition (EMT) in lung adenocarcinoma epithelial cell line (A549)","volume":"300","author":"Gupta","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cell Immunol."},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12859-021-04100-z","article-title":"Strain-specific behavior of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in A549 lung cancer cell line","volume":"22","author":"Hadifar","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMC Bioinf."},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1158\/2159-8290.cd-21-1059","article-title":"Hallmarks of cancer: new dimensions","volume":"12","author":"Hanahan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cancer Discov."},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"646","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2011.02.013","article-title":"Hallmarks of cancer: The next generation","volume":"144","author":"Hanahan","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22115421","article-title":"Inflammation-induced tumorigenesis and metastasis","volume":"22","author":"Hibino","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Mol. Sci."},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1476-4598-13-210","article-title":"Mycobacterium bovis BCG promotes tumor cell survival from tumor necrosis factor-\u03b1-induced apoptosis","volume":"13","author":"Holla","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mol. Cancer"},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fonc.2024.1492574","article-title":"Pulmonary sarcomatoid carcinoma coexisting with tuberculosis: a case report and literature review","volume":"14","author":"Huang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Front. Oncol."},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1249","DOI":"10.2353\/ajpath.2006.050848","article-title":"Trehalose 6,6\u2032-dimycolate and lipid in the pathogenesis of caseating granulomas of tuberculosis in mice","volume":"168","author":"Hunter","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. J. Pathol."},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"158","DOI":"10.4143\/crt.2018.084","article-title":"Impact of pulmonary tuberculosis on the EGFR mutational status and clinical outcome in patients with lung adenocarcinoma","volume":"51","author":"Hwang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cancer Res. Treat"},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"737","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meegid.2011.09.008","article-title":"pknE, a serine\/threonine kinase of Mycobacterium tuberculosis modulates multiple apoptotic paradigms","volume":"12","author":"Kumar","year":"2012","journal-title":"Infect. Genet. Evol."},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e33226","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0033226","article-title":"Concomitant active tuberculosis prolongs survival in non-small cell lung cancer: A study in a tuberculosis-endemic country","volume":"7","author":"Kuo","year":"2012","journal-title":"PloS One"},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8875","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-025-63930-0","article-title":"Mycobacterium tuberculosis-specific T cells restrain anti-cancer drug-induced neutrophilic lung inflammation in tuberculosis","volume":"16","author":"Kwon","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"B46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2671","DOI":"10.21037\/tcr-22-272","article-title":"Clinical characteristics and survival of patients concurrently diagnosed with lung cancer and active pulmonary tuberculosis","volume":"11","author":"Lee","year":"2022","journal-title":"Transl. Cancer Res."},{"key":"B47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2025.1537520","article-title":"Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection may increase the degrees of Malignancy in lung adenocarcinoma","volume":"16","author":"Li","year":"2025","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"B48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-021-00687-0","article-title":"Pattern recognition receptors in health and diseases","volume":"6","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Signal Transduct Target Ther."},{"key":"B49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2023.1121257","article-title":"Prior treated tuberculosis and mortality risk in lung cancer","volume":"10","author":"Liao","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Med."},{"key":"B50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gendis.2021.09.006","article-title":"Inflammation and cancer: paradoxical roles in tumorigenesis and implications in immunotherapies","volume":"10","author":"Liu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Genes Dis."},{"key":"B51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0278661","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0278661","article-title":"Tuberculosis and risk of cancer: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"17","author":"Luczynski","year":"2022","journal-title":"PloS One"},{"key":"B52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1097\/jto.0b013e31823c588d","article-title":"Association between tumor epidermal growth factor receptor mutation and pulmonary tuberculosis in patients with adenocarcinoma of the lungs","volume":"7","author":"Luo","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Thorac. Oncol."},{"key":"B53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2019.00917","article-title":"The emerging role of myeloid-derived suppressor cells in tuberculosis","volume":"10","author":"Magcwebeba","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"B54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jctube.2022.100300","article-title":"Tuberculosis pathophysiology and anti-VEGF intervention","volume":"27","author":"Maison","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Clin. Tuberc Mycobact Dis."},{"key":"B55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijmm.2022.151558","article-title":"Can Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection lead to cancer? Call for a paradigm shift in understanding TB and cancer","volume":"312","author":"Malik","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"B56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2020.103177","article-title":"Chronic inflammation towards cancer incidence: A systematic review and meta-analysis of epidemiological studies","volume":"157","author":"Michels","year":"2021","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Oncol. Hematol."},{"key":"B57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1000864","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1000864","article-title":"The type I NADH dehydrogenase of mycobacterium tuberculosis counters phagosomal NOX2 activity to inhibit TNF-\u03b1-mediated host cell apoptosis","volume":"6","author":"Miller","year":"2010","journal-title":"PloS Pathog."},{"key":"B58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/jcla.25122","article-title":"Mycobacterium tuberculosis: the mechanism of pathogenicity, immune responses, and diagnostic challenges","volume":"38","author":"Mohammadnabi","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Clin. Lab. Anal."},{"key":"B59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1928","DOI":"10.1038\/onc.2009.32","article-title":"Lung carcinogenesis induced by chronic tuberculosis infection: the experimental model and genetic control","volume":"28","author":"Nalbandian","year":"2009","journal-title":"Oncogene"},{"key":"B60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tube.2024.102477","article-title":"Rv0495c regulates redox homeostasis in Mycobacterium tuberculosis","volume":"145","author":"Pal","year":"2024","journal-title":"Tuberculosis"},{"key":"B61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lana.2022.100294","article-title":"An updated profile of the cancer burden, patterns and trends in Latin America and the Caribbean","volume":"13","author":"Pi\u00f1eros","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Reg. Health - Am."},{"key":"B62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e609","DOI":"10.1016\/s2214-109x(16)30143-7","article-title":"Global burden of cancers attributable to infections in 2012: a synthetic analysis","volume":"4","author":"Plummer","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lancet Glob Health"},{"key":"B63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/srep33162","article-title":"Mycobacterium tuberculosis exploits the formation of new blood vessels for its dissemination","volume":"6","author":"Polena","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"B64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fonc.2022.836004","article-title":"Bacteria-mediated oncogenesis and the underlying molecular intricacies: what we know so far","volume":"12","author":"Prasad","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Oncol."},{"key":"B65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph20021282","article-title":"The bidirectional relationship between pulmonary tuberculosis and lung cancer","volume":"20","author":"Preda","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health"},{"key":"B66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1186\/s13027-022-00434-2","article-title":"The relationship between previous pulmonary tuberculosis and risk of lung cancer in the future","volume":"17","author":"Qin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Infect. Agent Cancer"},{"key":"B67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1002984","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1002984","article-title":"Tim-3-expressing CD4+ and CD8+ T cells in human tuberculosis (TB) exhibit polarized effector memory phenotypes and stronger anti-TB effector functions","volume":"8","author":"Qiu","year":"2012","journal-title":"PloS Pathog."},{"key":"B68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3188","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2017.08.101","article-title":"Mycobacterium tuberculosis controls phagosomal acidification by targeting CISH-mediated signaling","volume":"20","author":"Queval","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"B69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"21653","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1007967107","article-title":"Mycobacterium tuberculosisevades host immunity by recruiting mesenchymal stem cells","volume":"107","author":"Raghuvanshi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"B70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens12060839","article-title":"Virulence factors of mycobacterium tuberculosis as modulators of cell death mechanisms","volume":"12","author":"Ramon-Luing","year":"2023","journal-title":"Pathogens"},{"key":"B71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0158262","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0158262","article-title":"Tuberculosis therapy modifies the cytokine profile, maturation state, and expression of inhibitory molecules on mycobacterium tuberculosis-specific CD4+ T-cells","volume":"11","author":"Saharia","year":"2016","journal-title":"PloS One"},{"key":"B72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/sciimmunol.ado5951","article-title":"Immunopathology in human tuberculosis","volume":"9","author":"Scriba","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Immunol."},{"key":"B73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/srep38362","article-title":"PD-1\/PD-L pathway inhibits M.tb-specific CD4+ T-cell functions and phagocytosis of macrophages in active tuberculosis","volume":"6","author":"Shen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"B74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tube.2016.10.001","article-title":"The characteristic profiles of PD-1 and PD-L1 expressions and dynamic changes during treatment in active tuberculosis","volume":"101","author":"Shen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Tuberculosis"},{"key":"B75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11901","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-48395-8","article-title":"The burdens of tuberculosis on patients with Malignancy: incidence, mortality and relapse","volume":"9","author":"Shu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"B76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0132249","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0132249","article-title":"Lesion-specific immune response in granulomas of patients with pulmonary tuberculosis: A pilot study","volume":"10","author":"Subbian","year":"2015","journal-title":"PloS One"},{"key":"B77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fonc.2025.1564686","article-title":"Concurrent active pulmonary tuberculosis and small cell lung cancer: diagnostic challenges and therapeutic insights from a case report","volume":"15","author":"Sun","year":"2025","journal-title":"Front. Oncol."},{"key":"B78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.medmic.2025.100123","article-title":"Contagious illness of tuberculosis and correlation with various types of cancer","volume":"24","author":"Sundaram","year":"2025","journal-title":"Med. Microecol"},{"key":"B79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2021.688625","article-title":"The role of tumor inflammatory microenvironment in lung cancer","volume":"12","author":"Tan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Pharmacol."},{"key":"B80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1271","DOI":"10.1158\/1541-7786.mcr-20-0137","article-title":"Bacterial SOS Genes mucAB\/umuDC Promote Mouse Tumors by Activating Oncogenes Nedd9\/Aurkb via a miR-145 Sponge","volume":"18","author":"Tanooka","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mol. Cancer Res."},{"key":"B81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1158\/2326-6066.cir-13-0179","article-title":"Pathogen-driven cancers and emerging immune therapeutic strategies","volume":"2","author":"Vandeven","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cancer Immunol. Res."},{"key":"B82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.21926\/obm.genet.2302183","article-title":"Mycobacterium tubercular mediated inflammation and lung carcinogenesis: connecting links","volume":"7","author":"Vashishth","year":"2023","journal-title":"OBM Genet."},{"key":"B83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"466","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1179663","article-title":"Tuberculous granuloma induction via interaction of a bacterial secreted protein with host epithelium","volume":"327","author":"Volkman","year":"2010","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"B84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.2147\/IDR.S497006","article-title":"Simultaneous anti-tuberculosis and anti-tumor treatment with immune checkpoint inhibitors for co-existent pulmonary tuberculosis and advanced lung cancer","volume":"18","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Infect. Drug Resist."},{"key":"B85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2024.1344821","article-title":"Progress in mechanism-based diagnosis and treatment of tuberculosis comorbid with tumor","volume":"15","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"B86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micpath.2011.03.004","article-title":"Mannosylated lipoarabinomannan balances apoptosis and inflammatory state in mycobacteria-infected and uninfected bystander macrophages","volume":"51","author":"Wojtas","year":"2011","journal-title":"Microb. Pathog."},{"key":"B87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1223","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ygeno.2019.07.008","article-title":"Tuberculosis infection and lung adenocarcinoma: Mendelian randomization and pathway analysis of genome-wide association study data from never-smoking Asian women","volume":"112","author":"Wong","year":"2020","journal-title":"Genomics"},{"key":"B88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"618","DOI":"10.1002\/cncr.25616","article-title":"Pulmonary tuberculosis increases the risk of lung cancer: A population-based cohort study","volume":"117","author":"Wu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cancer"},{"key":"B89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/iai.00217-24","article-title":"The SapM phosphatase can arrest phagosome maturation in an ESX-1 independent manner in Mycobacterium tuberculosis and BCG","volume":"92","author":"Xander","year":"2024","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"B90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4012","DOI":"10.21037\/tlcr-21-465","article-title":"Advances in molecular mechanisms of interaction between Mycobacterium tuberculosis and lung cancer: a narrative review","volume":"10","author":"Xiong","year":"2021","journal-title":"Transl. Lung Cancer Res."},{"key":"B91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"382","DOI":"10.1186\/s12890-023-02674-3","article-title":"The diagnosis interval influences risk factors of mortality in patients with co-existent active tuberculosis and lung cancer: a retrospective study","volume":"23","author":"Xiong","year":"2023","journal-title":"BMC Pulm Med."},{"key":"B92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isci.2023.107881","article-title":"Immunotherapy and biomarkers in patients with lung cancer with tuberculosis: Recent advances and future Directions","volume":"26","author":"Yang","year":"2023","journal-title":"iScience"},{"key":"B93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1143","DOI":"10.21037\/atm-20-5964","article-title":"Efficacy and safety of concurrent anti-tuberculosis treatment and chemotherapy in lung cancer patients with co-existent tuberculosis","volume":"8","author":"Ye","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ann. Transl. Med."},{"key":"B94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2575","DOI":"10.2147\/ott.s302996","article-title":"Coexistence of lung squamous cell carcinoma and pulmonary tuberculosis within a single lesion: A case report","volume":"14","author":"Yu","year":"2021","journal-title":"OncoTargets Ther."},{"key":"B95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1097\/jto.0b013e3181fb4fcc","article-title":"Increased lung cancer risk among patients with pulmonary tuberculosis: A population cohort study","volume":"6","author":"Yu","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Thorac. Oncol."},{"key":"B96","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejca.2020.03.015","article-title":"Immune checkpoint inhibitor use and tuberculosis: a systematic review of the literature","volume":"132","author":"Zaemes","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. J. Cancer"},{"key":"B97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1158\/1940-6207.capr-08-0014","article-title":"Intratumoral epiregulin is a marker of advanced disease in non\u2013small cell lung cancer patients and confers invasive properties onEGFR-mutant cells","volume":"1","author":"Zhang","year":"2008","journal-title":"Cancer Prev. Res. (Phila Pa)"},{"key":"B98","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.00518","article-title":"BTLA-expressing dendritic cells in patients with tuberculosis exhibit reduced production of IL-12\/IFN-\u03b1 and increased production of IL-4 and TGF-\u03b2, favoring th2 and foxp3+ Treg polarization","volume":"11","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"B99","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molimm.2015.02.020","article-title":"Mycobacterium tuberculosis Rv2185c contributes to nuclear factor-\u03baB activation","volume":"66","author":"Zhang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mol. Immunol."},{"key":"B100","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1186\/s12885-024-13350-y","article-title":"Clinical and imaging features of co-existent pulmonary tuberculosis and lung cancer: a population-based matching study in China","volume":"25","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"BMC Cancer"},{"key":"B101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"501","DOI":"10.1038\/bjc.1987.233","article-title":"Lung cancer and prior tuberculosis infection in Shanghai","volume":"56","author":"Zheng","year":"1987","journal-title":"Br. J. Cancer"},{"key":"B102","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1749-8090-8-123","article-title":"The presence of old pulmonary tuberculosis is an independent prognostic factor for squamous cell lung cancer survival","volume":"8","author":"Zhou","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Cardiothorac Surg."},{"key":"B103","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"685","DOI":"10.3892\/or.2017.5733","article-title":"Concomitant Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection promotes lung tumor growth through enhancing Treg development","volume":"38","author":"Zhou","year":"2017","journal-title":"Oncol. Rep."},{"key":"B104","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e70213","DOI":"10.1002\/cnr2.70213","article-title":"Coexisting lung cancer and pulmonary tuberculosis: A comprehensive review from incidence to management","volume":"8","author":"Zhou","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cancer Rep. Hoboken NJ"},{"key":"B105","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2272","DOI":"10.21037\/tlcr-2025-450","article-title":"Research progress on lung cancer complicated with pulmonary tuberculosis: a narrative review","volume":"14","author":"Zhou","year":"2025","journal-title":"Transl. Lung Cancer Res."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fcimb.2025.1697874\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,13]],"date-time":"2025-11-13T10:39:44Z","timestamp":1763030384000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fcimb.2025.1697874\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,13]]},"references-count":105,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fcimb.2025.1697874"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fcimb.2025.1697874","relation":{},"ISSN":["2235-2988"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2235-2988","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,13]]},"article-number":"1697874"}}