{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,9]],"date-time":"2026-09-09T20:11:05Z","timestamp":1788984665584,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":51,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,31]],"date-time":"2025-10-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1761868800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003069","name":"Instituto Polit\u00e9cnico Nacional","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003069","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      <jats:italic>Candida glabrata (Nakaseomyces glabrata)<\/jats:italic>\n                      is an emergent human fungal opportunist pathogen. Recently, it was considered by the WHO as a fungal priority pathogen due to the high percentage of mortality (20-50%) from invasive candidiasis.\n                      <jats:italic>C. glabrata<\/jats:italic>\n                      shows high resistance to azoles, and in recent years, echinocandin resistance has been rising. Additionally,\n                      <jats:italic>C. glabrata<\/jats:italic>\n                      can evade immunological responses and manipulate macrophage activity to survive within these immune cells successfully. Titanium oxide (TiO\n                      <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                      ) is a photocatalytic material with recognized antimicrobial properties with and without photoactivation. This study aimed to investigate the antifungal effect of TiO\n                      <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                      nanoparticles on the planktonic form of\n                      <jats:italic>C. glabrata<\/jats:italic>\n                      and on internalized\n                      <jats:italic>C. glabrata<\/jats:italic>\n                      in macrophages.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      TiO\n                      <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                      nanoparticles were synthesized by the\n                      <jats:italic>sol-gel<\/jats:italic>\n                      method and characterized by X-ray diffraction, Raman spectroscopy, and TEM. The effect of nanoparticles on\n                      <jats:italic>C. glabrata<\/jats:italic>\n                      was determined by quantification of Colony Forming Units and TEM. ROS levels were analyzed by NBT reduction, and the\u00a0role of autophagy was determined by immunofluorescence and western blotting.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      The nanoparticles synthetized are composed of a mixture of anatase and rutile phases with a quasi-spherical shape and a diameter range of 10-79 nm. These nanoparticles exhibit a significant effect on planktonic\n                      <jats:italic>C. glabrata<\/jats:italic>\n                      (approximately 90%) and a substantial reduction of fungal load (70-90%) in infected macrophages. Remarkably, the lower concentrations (1, 10, and 50 \u00b5g\/mL) exhibited the best antifungal effect. Moreover, this impairment was associated with independent mechanisms of the ROS production, since at those concentrations, there was no increase in ROS levels, and the antifungal effect was also observed in darkness. The induction of autophagy observed in cells treated with 50 \u00b5g\/mL nanoparticles suggests that this process is a potential mechanism responsible for TiO\n                      <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                      nanoparticles activity.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      TiO\n                      <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                      nanoparticles exhibited a high antifungal effect on both planktonic and internalized yeasts, suggesting that autophagy may be involved. Together, the findings highlight the potential therapeutic use of TiO\n                      <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                      nanoparticles in the treatment of fungal infections.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2025.1714083","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,31]],"date-time":"2025-10-31T06:24:43Z","timestamp":1761891883000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Antifungal effect of titanium oxide nanoparticles on Candida glabrata internalized in human macrophages"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Mar\u00eda Elena","family":"G\u00f3mez-Hern\u00e1ndez","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shantal Lizbeth","family":"Baltierra-Uribe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Juan","family":"Castillo-Cruz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ricardo","family":"Mondrag\u00f3n-Flores","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sirenia","family":"Gonz\u00e1lez-Pozos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"M\u00f3nica Araceli","family":"Vidales-Hurtado","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Blanca Estela","family":"Garc\u00eda-P\u00e9rez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.15376\/biores.14.4.8866-8878","article-title":"Antifungal activity of titanium dioxide nanoparticles against Candida albicans","volume":"14","author":"Ahmad","year":"2019","journal-title":"BioRes."},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jksus.2022.101896","article-title":"Green synthesis and antimicrobial efficacy of titanium dioxide nanoparticles using Luffa acutangula leaf extract","volume":"34","author":"Anbumani","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. 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