{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,23]],"date-time":"2026-07-23T06:06:06Z","timestamp":1784786766949,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":58,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,23]],"date-time":"2026-07-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1784764800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Cigarette smoke is a major risk factor for respiratory infections and chronic inflammatory lung diseases, yet the mechanisms through which it alters host\u2013pathogen interactions remain incompletely understood.\n                      <jats:italic>Klebsiella pneumoniae<\/jats:italic>\n                      is an opportunistic Gram-negative pathogen that causes severe infections, particularly in susceptible individuals. This study investigated the effects of cigarette smoke extract (CSE) on\n                      <jats:italic>K. pneumoniae<\/jats:italic>\n                      virulence-associated traits and host immune responses.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Three multidrug-resistant, extended-spectrum \u03b2-lactamase-producing clinical\n                      <jats:italic>K. pneumoniae<\/jats:italic>\n                      isolates were exposed to CSE. Bacterial growth, virulence gene expression (\n                      <jats:italic>mrkA, luxS<\/jats:italic>\n                      , and\n                      <jats:italic>AcrB<\/jats:italic>\n                      ), biofilm formation, antimicrobial susceptibility, macrophage invasion, neutrophil phagocytosis, and cytokine responses in THP-1-derived macrophages were evaluated using microbiological, molecular, and cell culture assays.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      High concentrations of CSE (\u226525%) suppressed bacterial growth, whereas 5\u201310% CSE had minimal effects. Exposure to 10% CSE significantly upregulated\n                      <jats:italic>mrkA, luxS<\/jats:italic>\n                      , and\n                      <jats:italic>AcrB<\/jats:italic>\n                      expression. Biofilm formation increased by 20.8\u201337.0%, and minimum inhibitory concentrations of ciprofloxacin and tigecycline increased two-fold following CSE exposure. CSE enhanced bacterial invasion of THP-1 macrophages and impaired neutrophil phagocytosis, reducing bacterial uptake by 17.8% and 29.9% after 30 and 60 min, respectively. Furthermore, CSE promoted a pro-inflammatory response characterized by increased TNF-\u03b1 and IL-1\u03b2 expression and reduced IL-10 expression across multiple time points.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Discussion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      CSE enhances the virulence potential of\n                      <jats:italic>K. pneumoniae<\/jats:italic>\n                      while disrupting innate immune defenses and immune regulation. These findings demonstrate a harmful synergy between cigarette smoke and bacterial infection that may contribute to the increased susceptibility and severity of respiratory infections observed in smokers.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2026.1787424","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,23]],"date-time":"2026-07-23T05:38:58Z","timestamp":1784785138000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Cigarette smoke modulates virulence-related properties and host immune responses in Klebsiella pneumoniae"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Hala O.","family":"Eltwisy","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Botany and Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Beni-Suef University","place":["Beni-Suef, Egypt"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Medhat","family":"Abdel-Fattah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Botany and Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Beni-Suef University","place":["Beni-Suef, Egypt"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Khaled N. 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