{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,22]],"date-time":"2026-09-22T15:58:33Z","timestamp":1790092713728,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":118,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,15]],"date-time":"2026-07-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1784073600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Vaccination stands as one of the most transformative interventions in the history of human civilization. In medicine, vaccination stands as a cornerstone that has saved countless lives across generations. Nevertheless, conventional vaccine development remains encumbered by prolonged timelines, substantial financial investment, and high attrition rates particularly during late-stage clinical trials underscoring the urgent need for more efficient and systematic approaches. In recent years, artificial intelligence (AI) has emerged as a transformative force across the biomedical sciences, offering unprecedented computational capacity to process and interpret complex biological datasets. The convergence of AI with vaccinology represents a significant methodological advancement which has the potential to fundamentally redefine the vaccine development paradigm. AI integrates advances in machine learning, multi-omics data analysis, and high-performance computing to accelerate antigen discovery, epitope prediction, immunogen design, and clinical evaluation. This development represents a paradigm shift toward faster, more precise, and scalable strategies for vaccine development. This review critically examines the current landscape of AI applications in vaccine development, with particular emphasis on recent advancements, translational challenges, and the prospective role of AI in shaping the future of immunization science.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2026.1870890","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,15]],"date-time":"2026-07-15T04:47:48Z","timestamp":1784090868000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Artificial intelligence in vaccine development: applications, implementation, and future directions"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Sastha N.","family":"Kumar","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Amrita School of Biotechnology, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham","place":["Kollam, India"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Raj","family":"Gondane","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Amrita School of Biotechnology, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham","place":["Kollam, India"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shubham","family":"Mahindrakar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Amrita School of Biotechnology, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham","place":["Kollam, India"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sukrut","family":"Vyawahare","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Amrita School of Biotechnology, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham","place":["Kollam, India"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Renju","family":"Krishna","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre","place":["Melbourne, VIC, Australia"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sabarinath","family":"Subramaniam","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Amrita School of Biotechnology, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham","place":["Kollam, India"]},{"name":"Sivasakthi Science Foundation","place":["Trivandrum, India"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bipin G.","family":"Nair","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Amrita School of Biotechnology, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham","place":["Kollam, India"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Geetha B.","family":"Kumar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Amrita School of Biotechnology, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham","place":["Kollam, India"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aravind","family":"Madhavan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Amrita School of Biotechnology, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham","place":["Kollam, India"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nidheesh","family":"M","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Amrita School of Biotechnology, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham","place":["Kollam, India"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pradeesh","family":"Babu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Amrita School of Biotechnology, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham","place":["Kollam, India"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2196\/40348","article-title":"The impact of digital health transformation driven by COVID-19 on nursing practice: Systematic literature review","volume":"5","author":"Abdolkhani","year":"2022","journal-title":"JMIR Nurs."},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2196\/76634","article-title":"Ethical implications of artificial intelligence in vaccine equity: Protocol for exploring vaccine distribution planning and scheduling in pandemics in low- and middle-income countries","volume":"14","author":"Akuma","year":"2025","journal-title":"JMIR Res. 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