{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,16]],"date-time":"2026-09-16T15:26:38Z","timestamp":1789572398464,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":98,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,20]],"date-time":"2022-06-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1655683200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Cardiovasc. Med."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Myocarditis is an inflammatory disease of the myocardium with focal or diffuse involvement. Viral infections are the most common cause of myocarditis, especially in Western countries. A recent viral illness with gastroenteric or upper respiratory symptoms often precedes myocarditis. The absence of specific pathognomonic features in conjunction with the wide spectrum of clinical manifestations that range from subclinical cases to sudden cardiac death (SCD) makes myocarditis diagnosis particularly challenging. Moreover, myocarditis might represent a cause of initially unexplained dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) and heart failure (HF), especially among children and young adults. Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (CMR) is crucial for myocarditis diagnosis, because of its ability to detect interstitial edema during acute inflammation. Assessment of subepicardial or mid-myocardial fibrosis by late gadolinium enhancement (LGE) is typical for myocarditis. Cardiac arrhythmias are frequent events that may arise especially in more severe myocarditis cases. The most common form of arrhythmia is atrial fibrillation, followed by ventricular tachycardia. Documented arrhythmias have been reported more commonly with HIV myocarditis than other more common infections such as Adenovirus, Parvovirus B19, human Herpes virus 6, and Enterovirus. The mechanisms of arrhythmogenesis in myocardial inflammation are not fully understood; in the acute phase, the spectrum of arrhythmogenesis ranges from a direct effect on cardiomyocytes that leads to electrical instability and ion channel impairment to ischemia from coronary macro- or microvascular disease. In chronic myocarditis, instead, myocardial replacement with fibrosis promotes scar-mediated re-entrant ventricular arrhythmias. Observational data suggested the important role of CMR, with LGE being the strongest independent predictor of SCD, cardiac, and all-cause mortality. In acute myocarditis, the most common localization of subepicardial LGE dwells in the lateral wall. Patients with myocarditis that develop HF and arrhythmias usually show a larger LGE distribution involving several myocardial segments. Moreover, a mid-layer LGE in the interventricular septum is more frequent in acute myocarditis than in acute coronary syndromes cases. The risk of SCD in patients with wide areas of LGE is significant, and a shared decision-making approach is warranted. Nevertheless, there is no formal consensus about the extension of LGE to justify implantable cardioverter defibrillator (ICD) implantation in primary prevention.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fcvm.2022.908663","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,20]],"date-time":"2022-06-20T00:27:36Z","timestamp":1655684856000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":87,"title":["Viral Myocarditis: Classification, Diagnosis, and Clinical Implications"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"9","author":[{"given":"Fabiola B.","family":"Sozzi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Elisa","family":"Gherbesi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andrea","family":"Faggiano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Eleonora","family":"Gnan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alessio","family":"Maruccio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marco","family":"Schiavone","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Laura","family":"Iacuzio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stefano","family":"Carugo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"841","DOI":"10.1161\/01.cir.93.5.841","article-title":"Report of the 1995 world health organization\/international society and federation of cardiology task force on the definition and classification of cardiomyopathies.","volume":"93","author":"Richardson","year":"1996","journal-title":"Circulation."},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2636","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/eht210","article-title":"Current state of knowledge on aetiology, diagnosis, management, and therapy of myocarditis: a position statement of the European society of cardiology working group on myocardial and pericardial diseases.","volume":"34","author":"Caforio","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eur Heart J."},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1038\/s41569-020-00435-x","article-title":"Myocarditis and inflammatory cardiomyopathy: current evidence and future directions.","volume":"18","author":"Tsch\u00f6pe","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat Rev Cardiol."},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"887","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.0000155616.07901.35","article-title":"High prevalence of viral genomes and multiple viral infections in the myocardium of adults with \u201cidiopathic\u201d left ventricular dysfunction.","volume":"111","author":"K\u00fchl","year":"2005","journal-title":"Circulation."},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCHEARTFAILURE.119.005250","article-title":"Early treatment of coxsackievirus B3-infected animals with soluble coxsackievirus-adenovirus receptor inhibits development of chronic coxsackievirus B3 cardiomyopathy.","volume":"12","author":"Pinkert","year":"2019","journal-title":"Circ Heart Fail."},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cardfail.2018.07.466","article-title":"Parvovirus B19 in endomyocardial biopsy of patients with idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy: foe or bystander?","volume":"25","author":"Hjalmarsson","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Card Fail."},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1646","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCRESAHA.109.213157","article-title":"Interleukin-17A is dispensable for myocarditis but essential for the progression to dilated cardiomyopathy.","volume":"106","author":"Baldeviano","year":"2010","journal-title":"Circ Res."},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2624","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.893248","article-title":"Regulatory T cells protect mice against coxsackievirus-induced myocarditis through the transforming growth factor \u03b2-coxsackie-adenovirus receptor pathway.","volume":"121","author":"Shi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Circulation."},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3098","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2020.04.048","article-title":"Lymphocytic myocarditis: a genetically predisposed disease?","volume":"75","author":"Artico","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Am Coll Cardiol."},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"605","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCHEARTFAILURE.114.001475","article-title":"Differential cardiac microRNA expression predicts the clinical course in human enterovirus cardiomyopathy.","volume":"8","author":"Kuehl","year":"2015","journal-title":"Circ Heart Fail."},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1859","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehaa288","article-title":"COVID-19-related myocarditis in a 21-year-old female patient.","volume":"41","author":"Kim","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur Heart J."},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"802","DOI":"10.1001\/jamacardio.2020.0950","article-title":"Association of cardiac injury with mortality in hospitalized patients with COVID-19 in Wuhan, China.","volume":"5","author":"Shi","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA Cardiol."},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm9103263","article-title":"Redefining the prognostic value of high-sensitivity troponin in COVID-19 patients: the importance of concomitant coronary artery disease.","volume":"9","author":"Schiavone","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Clin Med."},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1111\/eci.13679","article-title":"Prevalence and clinical outcomes of myocarditis and pericarditis in 718,365 COVID-19 patients.","volume":"51","author":"Buckley","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur J Clin Investig."},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1228","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm7035e5","article-title":"Association between COVID-19 and myocarditis using hospital-based administrative data \u2014 United States, march 2020-january 2021.","volume":"70","author":"Boehmer","year":"2021","journal-title":"MMWR Recommend Rep."},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mayocpiqo.2021.12.006","article-title":"Association between myocarditis and mortality in COVID-19 patients in a large registry.","volume":"6","author":"Annie","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mayo Clin Proc Innov Qual Outcomes."},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"618","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2362.2009.02153.x","article-title":"SARS-coronavirus modulation of myocardial ACE2 expression and inflammation in patients with SARS.","volume":"39","author":"Oudit","year":"2009","journal-title":"Eur J Clin Investig."},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1033","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)30628-0","article-title":"COVID-19: consider cytokine storm syndromes and immunosuppression.","volume":"395","author":"Mehta","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet."},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1007\/s10741-021-10087-9","article-title":"COVID-19 and myocarditis: a systematic review and overview of current challenges.","volume":"27","author":"Castiello","year":"2022","journal-title":"Heart Fail Rev."},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2440","DOI":"10.1002\/ehf2.12805","article-title":"Detection of viral SARS-CoV-2 genomes and histopathological changes in endomyocardial biopsies.","volume":"7","author":"Escher","year":"2020","journal-title":"ESC Heart Fail."},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1265","DOI":"10.1001\/jamacardio.2020.3557","article-title":"Outcomes of cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging in patients recently recovered from coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19).","volume":"5","author":"Puntmann","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA Cardiol."},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.121.056135","article-title":"Myocarditis with COVID-19 mRNA vaccines.","volume":"2019","author":"Bozkurt","year":"2021","journal-title":"Circulation."},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1038\/s41569-021-00662-w","article-title":"Myocarditis after COVID-19 mRNA vaccination: clinical observations and potential mechanisms.","volume":"19","author":"Heymans","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat Rev Cardiol."},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2021.07.016","article-title":"The novel platform of mRNA COVID-19 vaccines and myocarditis: clues into the potential underlying mechanism.","volume":"39","author":"Lazaros","year":"2021","journal-title":"Vaccine."},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2132","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2110737","article-title":"Myocarditis after Covid-19 vaccination in a large health care organization.","volume":"385","author":"Witberg","year":"2021","journal-title":"N Engl J Med."},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2140","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2109730","article-title":"Myocarditis after BNT162b2 mRNA vaccine against covid-19 in Israel.","volume":"385","author":"Mevorach","year":"2021","journal-title":"N Engl J Med."},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics11091647","article-title":"Myocardial pathology in covid-19-associated cardiac injury: a systematic review.","volume":"11","author":"Maiese","year":"2021","journal-title":"Diagnostics."},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCHEARTFAILURE.120.007405","article-title":"Management of acute myocarditis and chronic inflammatory cardiomyopathy: an expert consensus document.","volume":"13","author":"Ammirati","year":"2020","journal-title":"Circ Heart Fail."},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e579","DOI":"10.1161\/CIR.0000000000000455","article-title":"Current diagnostic and treatment strategies for specific dilated cardiomyopathies: a scientific statement from the American heart association.","volume":"134","author":"Bozkurt","year":"2016","journal-title":"Circulation."},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1088","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.118.035319","article-title":"Clinical presentation and outcome in a contemporary cohort of patients with acute myocarditis: multicenter lombardy registry.","volume":"138","author":"Ammirati","year":"2018","journal-title":"Circulation."},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1007\/s10554-012-0085-6","article-title":"Speckle tracking echocardiography in acute myocarditis.","volume":"29","author":"Hsiao","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int J Cardiovasc Imaging."},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1018","DOI":"10.1093\/ehjci\/jev302","article-title":"Myocardial oedema in acute myocarditis detected by echocardiographic 2D myocardial deformation analysis.","volume":"17","author":"L\u00f8gstrup","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eur Heart J Cardiovasc Imaging."},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/ejechocard\/jep183","article-title":"Acute myocarditis: can novel echocardiographic techniques assist with diagnosis?","volume":"11","author":"Afonso","year":"2010","journal-title":"Eur J Echocardiogr."},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"747","DOI":"10.1007\/s10741-012-9356-5","article-title":"Role of cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging (CMR) in the diagnosis of acute and chronic myocarditis.","volume":"18","author":"Yilmaz","year":"2013","journal-title":"Heart Fail Rev."},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"881","DOI":"10.2459\/JCM.0000000000000574","article-title":"Left and right ventricular morphology, function and late gadolinium enhancement extent and localization change with different clinical presentation of acute myocarditis data from the ITAlian multicenter study on MYocarditis (ITAMY).","volume":"18","author":"di Bella","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Cardiovasc Med (Hagerstown)."},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s13244-014-0366-9","article-title":"T1 mapping: characterisation of myocardial interstitial space.","volume":"6","author":"Perea","year":"2015","journal-title":"Insights Imaging."},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3158","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2018.09.072","article-title":"Cardiovascular magnetic resonance in nonischemic myocardial inflammation: expert recommendations.","volume":"72","author":"Ferreira","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Am Coll Cardiol."},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3599","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehab368","article-title":"2021 ESC guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of acute and chronic heart failure.","volume":"42","author":"McDonagh","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur Heart J."},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehy730","article-title":"Recommendations for participation in competitive and leisure time sport in athletes with cardiomyopathies, myocarditis, and pericarditis: position statement of the sport cardiology section of the European association of preventive cardiology (EAPC).","volume":"40","author":"Pelliccia","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur Heart J."},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1295","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2012.06.026","article-title":"Interferon-beta improves survival in enterovirus-associated cardiomyopathy.","volume":"60","author":"K\u00fchl","year":"2012","journal-title":"J Am Coll Cardiol."},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2793","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.0000072766.67150.51","article-title":"Interferon-beta treatment eliminates cardiotropic viruses and improves left ventricular function in patients with myocardial persistence of viral genomes and left ventricular dysfunction.","volume":"107","author":"K\u00fchl","year":"2003","journal-title":"Circulation."},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1568","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCRESAHA.118.313578","article-title":"Management of myocarditis-related cardiomyopathy in adults.","volume":"124","author":"Tsch\u00f6pe","year":"2019","journal-title":"Circ Res."},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1161\/01.cir.103.2.220","article-title":"Immunomodulating therapy with intravenous immunoglobulin in patients with chronic heart failure.","volume":"103","author":"Gullestad","year":"2001","journal-title":"Circulation."},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"252","DOI":"10.1161\/01.cir.89.1.252","article-title":"Gamma-globulin treatment of acute myocarditis in the pediatric population.","volume":"89","author":"Drucker","year":"1994","journal-title":"Circulation."},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2254","DOI":"10.1161\/01.cir.103.18.2254","article-title":"Controlled trial of intravenous immune globulin in recent-onset dilated cardiomyopathy.","volume":"103","author":"McNamara","year":"2001","journal-title":"Circulation."},{"key":"B46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"809","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ahj.2010.01.012","article-title":"Effects of immunoadsorption and subsequent immunoglobulin G substitution on cardiopulmonary exercise capacity in patients with dilated cardiomyopathy.","volume":"159","author":"Herda","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am Heart J."},{"key":"B47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1011","DOI":"10.1007\/s00392-016-1011-z","article-title":"Long-term outcome of patients with virus-negative chronic myocarditis or inflammatory cardiomyopathy after immunosuppressive therapy.","volume":"105","author":"Escher","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin Res Cardiol."},{"key":"B48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1468","DOI":"10.1002\/ejhf.1560","article-title":"Immunosuppression in inflammatory cardiomyopathy and parvovirus B19 persistence.","volume":"21","author":"Tsch\u00f6pe","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur J Heart Fail."},{"key":"B49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"682","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejcts.2010.12.050","article-title":"Extracorporeal membranous oxygenation support for acute fulminant myocarditis: analysis of a single center\u2019s experience.","volume":"40","author":"Hsu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eur J Cardiothorac Surg."},{"key":"B50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1097\/MAT.0b013e31824b1f70","article-title":"Combined use of impella left ventricular assist device and extracorporeal membrane oxygenation as a bridge to recovery in fulminant myocarditis.","volume":"58","author":"Chaparro","year":"2012","journal-title":"ASAIO J."},{"key":"B51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2164","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehz124","article-title":"Mode-of-action of the PROPELLA concept in fulminant myocarditis.","volume":"40","author":"Spillmann","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur Heart J."},{"key":"B52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"793","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hrthm.2018.11.024","article-title":"Arrhythmias in myocarditis: state of the art.","volume":"16","author":"Peretto","year":"2019","journal-title":"Heart Rhythm."},{"key":"B53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2384","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.113.003092","article-title":"Long-term evolution and prognostic stratification of biopsy-proven active myocarditis.","volume":"128","author":"Anzini","year":"2013","journal-title":"Circulation."},{"key":"B54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.1016\/s0008-6363(01)00254-1","article-title":"Sudden cardiac death in young people with apparently normal heart.","volume":"50","author":"Corrado","year":"2001","journal-title":"Cardiovasc Res."},{"key":"B55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1007\/s12265-020-09996-1","article-title":"Myocarditis in the athlete: arrhythmogenic substrates, clinical manifestations, management, and eligibility decisions.","volume":"13","author":"Vio","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Cardiovasc Transl Res."},{"key":"B56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1326","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehm076","article-title":"A prospective study of biopsy-proven myocarditis: prognostic relevance of clinical and aetiopathogenetic features at diagnosis.","volume":"28","author":"Caforio","year":"2007","journal-title":"Eur Heart J."},{"key":"B57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"272","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hlc.2017.12.005","article-title":"Outcomes of heart block in myocarditis: a review of 31,760 patients.","volume":"28","author":"Ogunbayo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Heart Lung Circ."},{"key":"B58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2793","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehv316","article-title":"2015 ESC guidelines for the management of patients with ventricular arrhythmias and the prevention of sudden cardiac death the task force for the management of patients with ventricular arrhythmias and the prevention of sudden cardiac death of the European society of cardiology (ESC) endorsed by: association for European paediatric and congenital cardiology (AEPC).","volume":"36","author":"Priori","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur Heart J."},{"key":"B59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2343","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2015.09.032","article-title":"Eligibility and disqualification recommendations for competitive athletes with cardiovascular abnormalities: preamble, principles, and general considerations: a scientific statement from the American heart association and American college of cardiology.","volume":"66","author":"Maron","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Am Coll Cardiol."},{"key":"B60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1860","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199706263362603","article-title":"Idiopathic giant-cell myocarditis \u2014 natural history and treatment.","volume":"336","author":"Cooper","year":"1997","journal-title":"N Engl J Med."},{"key":"B61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1305","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hrthm.2014.03.043","article-title":"HRS expert consensus statement on the diagnosis and management of arrhythmias associated with cardiac sarcoidosis.","volume":"11","author":"Birnie","year":"2014","journal-title":"Heart Rhythm."},{"key":"B62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijcard.2007.10.053","article-title":"Myopericarditis: etiology, management, and prognosis.","volume":"127","author":"Imazio","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int J Cardiol."},{"key":"B63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ccep.2015.03.009","article-title":"Arrhythmias in viral myocarditis and pericarditis.","volume":"7","author":"Baksi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Card Electrophysiol Clin."},{"key":"B64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"465","DOI":"10.1002\/clc.4960210704","article-title":"Cardiac involvement in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome a review to push action.","volume":"21","author":"Milei","year":"1998","journal-title":"Clin Cardiol."},{"key":"B65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"348","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00144836","article-title":"Coxsackievirus B3 myocarditis in C3H\/HeJ mice: description of an inbred model and the effect of exercise on virulence.","volume":"5","author":"Kiel","year":"1989","journal-title":"Eur J Epidemiol."},{"key":"B66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.115.015431","article-title":"Incidence, cause, and comparative frequency of sudden cardiac death in national collegiate athletic association athletes a decade in review.","volume":"132","author":"Harmon","year":"2015","journal-title":"Circulation."},{"key":"B67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ahj.2019.08.007","article-title":"Sudden cardiac death in patients with myocarditis: evaluation, risk stratification, and management.","volume":"220","author":"Ali-Ahmed","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am Heart J."},{"key":"B68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1007\/s00011-009-0093-8","article-title":"Immunomodulation by atorvastatin upregulates expression of gap junction proteins in coxsackievirus B3 (CVB3)-induced myocarditis.","volume":"59","author":"Zhang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Inflamm Res."},{"key":"B69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.4103\/2321-3868.123072","article-title":"Inflammation and cardiac dysfunction during sepsis, muscular dystrophy, and myocarditis.","volume":"1","author":"Li","year":"2013","journal-title":"Burns Trauma."},{"key":"B70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1253\/circj.66.97","article-title":"Electrical remodeling of the ventricular myocardium in myocarditis: studies of rat experimental autoimmune myocarditis.","volume":"66","author":"Saito","year":"2002","journal-title":"Circ J."},{"key":"B71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"766","DOI":"10.1136\/hrt.2008.149823","article-title":"Arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy: an update.","volume":"95","author":"Corrado","year":"2009","journal-title":"Heart."},{"key":"B72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1058","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2020.01.032","article-title":"Ventricular arrhythmias and sudden cardiac death in lymphocytic myocarditis.","volume":"75","author":"Cooper","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Am Coll Cardiol."},{"key":"B73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2020.03.083","article-title":"Genetic basis for acute myocarditis presenting with ventricular arrhythmias?","volume":"76","author":"Kalra","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Am Coll Cardiol."},{"key":"B74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2008.11.017","article-title":"Myocarditis presenting with ventricular arrhythmias: role of electroanatomical mapping-guided endomyocardial biopsy in differential diagnosis.","author":"Pieroni","year":"2011","journal-title":"Myocarditis."},{"key":"B75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm9030848","article-title":"High risk of sustained ventricular arrhythmia recurrence after acute myocarditis.","volume":"9","author":"Rosier","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Clin Med."},{"key":"B76","first-page":"e210","article-title":"2017 AHA\/ACC\/HRS guideline for management of patients with ventricular arrhythmias and the prevention of sudden cardiac death.","volume":"138","author":"Al-Khatib","year":"2018","journal-title":"Circulation."},{"key":"B77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amjcard.2013.10.021","article-title":"In-hospital arrhythmia development and outcomes in pediatric patients with acute myocarditis.","volume":"113","author":"Miyake","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am J Cardiol."},{"key":"B78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1400","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amjcard.2014.07.074","article-title":"Usefulness of arrhythmias as predictors of death and resource utilization in children with myocarditis.","volume":"114","author":"Anderson","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am J Cardiol."},{"key":"B79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1097\/HCO.0000000000000515","article-title":"Viral myocarditis: a prime example for endomyocardial biopsy-guided diagnosis and therapy.","volume":"33","author":"Van Linthout","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr Opin Cardiol."},{"key":"B80","first-page":"e382","article-title":"2018 ACC\/AHA\/HRS guideline on the evaluation and management of patients with bradycardia and cardiac conduction delay: a report of the American college of cardiology\/American heart association task force on clinical practice guidelines and the heart rhythm society.","volume":"140","author":"Kusumoto","year":"2019","journal-title":"Circulation."},{"key":"B81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2757","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehv445","article-title":"2015 European society of cardiology guidelines for the management of patients with ventricular arrhythmias and the prevention of sudden cardiac death summarized by co-chairs.","volume":"36","author":"Priori","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur Heart J."},{"key":"B82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1007\/s00392-009-0093-2","article-title":"Successful use of a wearable cardioverter-defibrillator in myocarditis with normal ejection fraction.","volume":"99","author":"Prochnau","year":"2010","journal-title":"Clin Res Cardiol."},{"key":"B83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"574","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacep.2019.12.010","article-title":"Long-term arrhythmic risk assessment in biopsy-proven myocarditis.","volume":"6","author":"Pelargonio","year":"2020","journal-title":"JACC Clin Electrophysiol."},{"key":"B84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"581","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hrthm.2018.10.032","article-title":"Competitive athletes with implantable cardioverter\u2013defibrillators\u2014how to program? Data from the implantable cardioverter\u2013defibrillator sports registry.","volume":"16","author":"Olshansky","year":"2019","journal-title":"Heart Rhythm."},{"key":"B85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2050","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hrthm.2021.07.008","article-title":"Long-term complications in patients implanted with subcutaneous implantable cardioverter-defibrillators: real-world data from the extended ELISIR experience.","volume":"18","author":"Gasperetti","year":"2021","journal-title":"Heart Rhythm."},{"key":"B86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hrthm.2022.02.029","article-title":"Age-related differences and associated mid-term outcomes of subcutaneous implantable cardioverter-defibrillators: a propensity-matched analysis from a multicenter European registry.","author":"Gulletta","year":"2022","journal-title":"Heart Rhythm."},{"key":"B87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2591","DOI":"10.1002\/ehf2.13340","article-title":"Wearable cardioverter-defibrillator: friend or foe in suspected myocarditis?","volume":"8","author":"Blaschke","year":"2021","journal-title":"ESC Heart Fail."},{"key":"B88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1540-8159.2004.00378.x","article-title":"Use of a wearable defibrillator in terminating tachyarrhythmias in patients at high risk for sudden death: results of WEARIT\/BIROAD.","volume":"27","author":"Feldman","year":"2004","journal-title":"Pacing Clin Electrophysiol."},{"key":"B89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2428","DOI":"10.1002\/ehf2.13353","article-title":"Benefit of a wearable cardioverter defibrillator for detection and therapy of arrhythmias in patients with myocarditis.","volume":"8","author":"Tscholl","year":"2021","journal-title":"ESC Heart Fail."},{"key":"B90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijcard.2018.07.142","article-title":"Ventricular arrhythmias and myocardial inflammation: long-term follow-up of patients with suspected myocarditis.","volume":"274","author":"Pavlicek","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int J Cardiol."},{"key":"B91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4189","DOI":"10.1002\/ehf2.13044","article-title":"Echocardiographic abnormalities and predictors of mortality in hospitalized COVID \u2013 19 patients : the ECHOVID \u2013 19 study.","volume":"7","author":"Christian","year":"2020","journal-title":"ESC Heart Fail."},{"key":"B92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1964","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2017.08.050","article-title":"Prognostic value of cardiac magnetic resonance tissue characterization in risk stratifying patients with suspected myocarditis.","volume":"70","author":"Gr\u00e4ni","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Am Coll Cardiol."},{"key":"B93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1977","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2017.08.044","article-title":"Cardiac MR with late gadolinium enhancement in acute myocarditis with preserved systolic function: ITAMY study.","volume":"70","author":"Aquaro","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Am Coll Cardiol."},{"key":"B94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2439","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2019.08.1061","article-title":"Prognostic value of repeating cardiac magnetic resonance in patients with acute myocarditis.","volume":"74","author":"Aquaro","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Am Coll Cardiol."},{"key":"B95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCIMAGING.120.011492","article-title":"Prognostic impact of late gadolinium enhancement by cardiovascular magnetic resonance in myocarditis: a systematic review and meta-analysis.","volume":"14","author":"Georgiopoulos","year":"2021","journal-title":"Circ Cardiovasc Imaging."},{"key":"B96","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1007\/s00380-021-01893-0","article-title":"Acute myocarditis: prognostic role of speckle tracking echocardiography and comparison with cardiac magnetic resonance features.","volume":"37","author":"Sperlongano","year":"2022","journal-title":"Heart Vessels."},{"key":"B97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"643","DOI":"10.3348\/kjr.2017.18.4.643","article-title":"Predictive value of cardiac magnetic resonance imaging-derived myocardial strain for poor outcomes in patients with acute myocarditis.","volume":"18","author":"Lee","year":"2017","journal-title":"Korean J Radiol."},{"key":"B98","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1891","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcmg.2020.04.025","article-title":"Feature tracking myocardial strain incrementally improves prognostication in myocarditis beyond traditional CMR imaging features.","volume":"13","author":"Fischer","year":"2020","journal-title":"JACC Cardiovasc Imaging."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Cardiovascular Medicine"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fcvm.2022.908663\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,20]],"date-time":"2022-06-20T00:27:47Z","timestamp":1655684867000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fcvm.2022.908663\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,20]]},"references-count":98,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fcvm.2022.908663"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fcvm.2022.908663","relation":{},"ISSN":["2297-055X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2297-055X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,20]]},"article-number":"908663"}}