{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,24]],"date-time":"2026-02-24T10:16:37Z","timestamp":1771928197535,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":80,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,29]],"date-time":"2026-01-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1769644800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Digit. Health"],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Jordan and Palestine face public health challenges due to infectious diseases, with the added detrimental factors of long-term conflict, forced relocation, and lack of resources. Added to these are the increased rates of morbidity and mortality from having limited healthcare services available due to a lack of funding, poor disease surveillance systems, and entrenched systemic weaknesses. The purpose of this systematic review was to report the prevalence of infectious diseases in Jordan and Palestine in order to inform the development of targeted public health programs that use both standard and novel approaches to reduce the region's disease burden.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Method<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>As defined by the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, the review included prospective, retrospective, cross-sectional, and case series studies published from January 2021 to February 2024. Non-English studies were excluded due to resource limitations, as were studies published before the COVID-19 pandemic (i.e., before January 2021) to focus on post-COVID-19-pandemic trends. We used diagnostic techniques (screening, laboratory, and confirmatory tests) to test for microorganisms in adults and children from at-risk populations in Jordan and Palestine. Test-negative controls were contrasted with patients who had positive test results. A manual reference screening process was added to a systematic search of PubMed and Scopus. Full-text, English-language publications published after January 2021 were eligible; protocols, reviews, case reports, and articles written in languages other than English were not. The Rayyan platform was used by two reviewers to independently screen studies. Infection type, causative microorganism, symptoms, mortality, risk factors, seasonal fluctuations, and study details (author, year, location, design, and participant characteristics) were among the extracted data. The Hoy 2012 Checklist was used to evaluate the risk of bias. Open Meta (Analyst) was used to analyze the 13 studies that satisfied the inclusion criteria. Study design, risk of bias, heterogeneity, publication bias, indirection, imprecision, effect size, and residual confounding were all considered when grading the quality of the evidence using the Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE) approach.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      The results revealed that four studies addressed the prevalence of\n                      <jats:italic>Brucella<\/jats:italic>\n                      infection in Jordan and Palestine. The pooled estimate was 42.2% (95% CI: 18.8%\u201365.6%,\n                      <jats:italic>I<\/jats:italic>\n                      <jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup>\n                      : 99.7%,\n                      <jats:italic>P:<\/jats:italic>\n                      0.001,\n                      <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009=\u20094 studies, 4,483 patients). In the studies that addressed diarrhea, in 31 of 159 (19.5%) cases, 20 were caused by\n                      <jats:italic>Entamoeba<\/jats:italic>\n                      (12.6%), 10 were caused by\n                      <jats:italic>Blastocystis<\/jats:italic>\n                      (6.3%), and 1 (0.6%) was caused by\n                      <jats:italic>Cryptosporidium<\/jats:italic>\n                      . As some cases had more than one parasite, the certainty of evidence (COE) was assessed as very low. The pooled estimate for viral causative agents of respiratory tract infections was 60% (95% CI: 11.8%\u2013100%), while for bacterial causes, the pooled estimate was 24.4% (95% CI: 0%\u201368.3%). Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) was the most common agent, with a pooled estimate of 57.9% (95% CI: 29.8%\u201385.9%), while influenza had a pooled estimate of 28.4% (95% CI: 5.3%\u201351.5%). Furthermore, two studies addressed the prevalence of meningitis in pediatric patients. In adult patients, of 192 patients known to have meningitis, a causative agent was identified in only 86 cases, with 83 (49%) classified as aseptic meningitis.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The review addressed the limitations of diagnostic capacity, reporting systems, and population-level data concerning high-burden and emerging pathogens within Jordan and Palestine. Specifically, the growth in the number of cases with respiratory tract infections, protozoal diarrheal diseases, and brucellosis indicates that improvements in surveillance systems and diagnostic processes need to be standardized and implemented throughout Jordan and Palestine to provide accurate and reliable diagnoses. In addition, improving the quality and quantity of the data and incorporating new technologies and other innovative approaches as a complement to existing public health indicators within Jordan and Palestine would be beneficial for better detecting these diseases at the earliest possible time and would provide the opportunity to establish evidence-based disease management strategies within the region.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fdgth.2025.1713089","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,29]],"date-time":"2026-01-29T06:42:41Z","timestamp":1769668961000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Infectious disease burden and surveillance challenges in Jordan and Palestine: a systematic review and meta-analysis"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"7","author":[{"given":"Eman Farouq","family":"Badran","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, 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