{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T17:51:28Z","timestamp":1790790688493,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":44,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,26]],"date-time":"2025-08-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1756166400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Endocrinol."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Objective<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>A comprehensive evaluation of the disease burden is essential for identifying effective strategies to address thyroid cancer. This study delineates the long-term global trends in thyroid cancer and its epidemiological characteristics.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Data on thyroid cancer from the Global Burden of Disease 2021 were utilized. The burden of thyroid cancer was assessed through measures of incidence, mortality, disability-adjusted life years (DALYs), and the socio-demographic index (SDI). Additionally, a global risk attribution analysis was conducted, and the Bayesian age-period-cohort (BAPC) model was employed to project the future global burden of thyroid cancer.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>In 2021, there were an estimated 2 million (95% UI: 1.8, 2.2) cases of thyroid cancer worldwide, with an age-standardized prevalence rate of 23.1 (95% UI: 20.7, 25.6) per 100,000 individuals, reflecting a 55% increase since 1990. The global mortality from thyroid cancer in 2021 was 44,800 (95% UI: 39,900, 48,500), with an age-standardized rate of 0.5 per 100,000 people (95% UI: 0.5, 0.6), marking a 7% decrease since 1990. In the same year, the global total number of DALYs attributable to thyroid cancer was 1,246.5 thousand (95% UI: 1,094.4, 1,375.9), with an age-standardized rate of 14.6 per 100,000 population (95% UI: 12.8, 16.1), representing a 4.2% reduction compared to 1990.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Over the past three decades, the age-standardized prevalence rate of thyroid cancer has increased, while the age-standardized mortality rate and DALY rate have decreased. Significant variations in prevalence, morbidity, and mortality exist across regions and countries. SDI plays a crucial role in the development of thyroid cancer, which is expected to remain a major public health challenge in the future.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2025.1644270","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,26]],"date-time":"2025-08-26T04:13:44Z","timestamp":1756181624000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Epidemiological study of thyroid cancer at global, regional, and national levels from 1990 to 2021: an analysis derived from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Lu","family":"Zhang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Liangliang","family":"Jiang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rong","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xuemei","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Boxun","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rensong","family":"Yue","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecl.2018.10.002","article-title":"Evolving understanding of the epidemiology of thyroid cancer","volume":"48","author":"Seib","year":"2019","journal-title":"Endocrinol Metab Clinics North America"},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3322\/caac.21660","article-title":"Global cancer statistics 2020: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries","volume":"71","author":"Sung","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ca-a Cancer J Clin"},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2020.00102","article-title":"Update on fundamental mechanisms of thyroid cancer","author":"Prete","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front Endocrinol"},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nrc3431","article-title":"Molecular pathogenesis and mechanisms of thyroid cancer","volume":"13","author":"Xing","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat Rev Cancer"},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/annonc\/mdz400","article-title":"Thyroid cancer: ESMO Clinical Practice Guidelines for diagnosis, treatment and follow-up","volume":"30","author":"Filetti","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ann Oncol"},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.6004\/jnccn.2010.0093","article-title":"Thyroid carcinoma","volume":"8","author":"Tuttle","year":"2010","journal-title":"J Natl Compr Cancer Network"},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-022-01990-1","article-title":"The Global Burden of Disease Study at 30 years","volume":"28","author":"Murray","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat Med"},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arr.2024.102613","article-title":"Global, regional, and national epidemiology of nasopharyngeal carcinoma in middle-aged and elderly patients from 1990 to 2021","volume":"104","author":"Liu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Ageing Res Rev"},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-025-23343-6","article-title":"Global, regional and country-specific burden of larynx cancer due to occupational exposure to asbestos: a systematic analysis of the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021","volume":"25","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-025-23476-8","article-title":"Burden of kidney cancer in China from 1990 to 2021 and predictions for 2036: an age-period-cohort analysis of global burden of disease study 2021","volume":"25","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s13045-024-01593-y","article-title":"Global burden of thyroid cancer from 1990 to 2021: a systematic analysis from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021","volume":"17","author":"Zhou","year":"2024","journal-title":"J Hematol Oncol"},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-77663-5","article-title":"Temporal trends of thyroid cancer in China and globally from 1990 to 2021: an analysis of the global burden of Disease Study 2021","volume":"14","author":"Huang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2024.1500926","article-title":"Burden of thyroid cancer in China and worldwide from 1990 to 2021: observation, comparison, and forecast from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021","volume":"15","author":"Meng","year":"2024","journal-title":"Front Endocrinol"},{"key":"B14","article-title":"High prevalence of BRAF mutations in thyroid cancer:: Genetic evidence for constitutive activation of the RET\/PTC-RAS-BRAF signaling pathway in papillary thyroid carcinoma","volume":"63","author":"Kimura","year":"2003","journal-title":"Cancer Res"},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nrendo.2011.142","article-title":"Molecular genetics and diagnosis of thyroid cancer","volume":"7","author":"Nikiforov","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nat Rev Endocrinol"},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1089\/thy.2018.0458","article-title":"DNA methylation-based method to differentiate Malignant from Benign thyroid lesions","volume":"29","author":"Barros-Filho","year":"2019","journal-title":"Thyroid"},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.canlet.2020.08.021","article-title":"Non-coding RNA in thyroid cancer - Functions and mechanisms","volume":"496","author":"Cao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cancer Letters"},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbcan.2023.188928","article-title":"Molecular basis and targeted therapy in thyroid cancer: Progress and opportunities","volume":"1878","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biochim Et Biophys Acta-Reviews Cancer"},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2015-4227","article-title":"Tumor-infiltrating T cells and the PD-1 checkpoint pathway in advanced differentiated and anaplastic thyroid cancer","volume":"101","author":"Bastman","year":"2016","journal-title":"J Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/17446651.2022.2112176","article-title":"Early detection of suspicious lymph nodes in differentiated thyroid cancer","volume":"17","author":"Frasca","year":"2022","journal-title":"Expert Rev Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers11040487","article-title":"CYFRA 21\u20131 in lymph node fine needle aspiration washout improves diagnostic accuracy for metastatic lymph nodes of differentiated thyroid cancer","volume":"11","author":"Lee","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cancers"},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ultrasmedbio.2020.10.003","article-title":"Combination of lymphatic and intravenous contrast-enhanced ultrasound for evaluation of cervical lymph node metastasis from papillary thyroid carcinoma: A preliminary study","volume":"47","author":"Wei","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ultrasound Med Biol"},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s12020-018-1658-5","article-title":"Sentinel lymph node biopsy in small papillary thyroid cancer. A review on novel surgical techniques","volume":"62","author":"Garau","year":"2018","journal-title":"Endocrine"},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00330-019-06098-8","article-title":"Application of deep learning to the diagnosis of cervical lymph node metastasis from thyroid cancer with CT","volume":"29","author":"Lee","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur Radiol"},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.295.18.2164","article-title":"Increasing incidence of thyroid cancer in the United States, 1973\u20132002","volume":"295","author":"Davies","year":"2006","journal-title":"Jama-Journal Am Med Assoc"},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1503\/cmaj.061730","article-title":"Increased incidence of differentiated thyroid carcinoma and detection of subclinical disease","volume":"177","author":"Kent","year":"2007","journal-title":"Can Med Assoc J"},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1158\/1055-9965.Epi-08-0960","article-title":"Rising thyroid cancer incidence in the United States by demographic and tumor characteristics, 1980\u20132005","volume":"18","author":"Enewold","year":"2009","journal-title":"Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev"},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1245\/s10434-013-2892-y","article-title":"The acceleration in papillary thyroid cancer incidence rates is similar among racial and ethnic groups in the United States","volume":"20","author":"Aschebrook-Kilfoy","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ann Surg Oncol"},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1089\/thy.2015.0319","article-title":"Anthropometric factors and thyroid cancer risk by histological subtype: pooled analysis of 22 prospective studies","volume":"26","author":"Kitahara","year":"2016","journal-title":"Thyroid"},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nrendo.2016.110","article-title":"The changing incidence of thyroid cancer","volume":"12","author":"Kitahara","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat Rev Endocrinol"},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ando.2020.11.006","article-title":"Progression of incidence and estimate of net survival from papillary thyroid cancers diagnosed between 2008 and 2016 in France","volume":"81","author":"Colonna","year":"2020","journal-title":"Annales D Endocrinologie"},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jval.2023.02.016","article-title":"The economic cost of thyroid cancer in France and the corresponding share associated with treatment of overdiagnosed cases","volume":"26","author":"Li","year":"2023","journal-title":"Value Health"},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/s2213-8587(24)00223-7","article-title":"Evolving epidemiological patterns of thyroid cancer and estimates of overdiagnosis in 2013\u201317 in 63 countries worldwide: a population-based study","volume":"12","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol"},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1530\/eje.0.1500133","article-title":"Advances in diagnostic practices affect thyroid cancer incidence in France","volume":"150","author":"Leenhardt","year":"2004","journal-title":"Eur J Endocrinol"},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.canep.2021.102051","article-title":"Temporal and geographical variations of thyroid cancer incidence and mortality in France during 1986-2015: The impact of overdiagnosis","volume":"75","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cancer Epidemiol"},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0029177","article-title":"BMI, diet and female reproductive factors as risks for thyroid cancer: A systematic review","volume":"7","author":"Peterson","year":"2012","journal-title":"PloS One"},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.med.080708.082713","article-title":"Biological mechanisms linking obesity and cancer risk: new perspectives","volume":"61","author":"Roberts","year":"2010","journal-title":"Annu Rev Med"},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2004-2225","article-title":"Small differences in thyroid function may be important for body mass index and the occurrence of obesity in the population","volume":"90","author":"Knudsen","year":"2005","journal-title":"J Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1089\/met.2008.0062","article-title":"Increased prevalence of insulin resistance in patients with differentiated thyroid carcinoma","volume":"7","author":"Rezzonico","year":"2009","journal-title":"Metab Syndrome Related Disord"},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1089\/thy.2013.0566","article-title":"Obesity and the risk of papillary thyroid cancer: A pooled analysis of three case-control studies","volume":"24","author":"Xu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Thyroid"},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/obr.12321","article-title":"Adiposity and risk of thyroid cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"16","author":"Schmid","year":"2015","journal-title":"Obes Rev"},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1210\/clinem\/dgz312","article-title":"Potential impact of BMI on the aggressiveness of presentation and clinical outcome of differentiated thyroid cancer","volume":"105","author":"Matrone","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00432-014-1792-2","article-title":"Associations between body mass and papillary thyroid cancer stage and tumor size: a population-based study","volume":"141","author":"Dieringer","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Cancer Res Clin Oncol"},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1089\/thy.2013.0062","article-title":"Prognosis of differentiated thyroid cancer in relation to serum thyrotropin and thyroglobulin antibody status at time of diagnosis","volume":"24","author":"McLeod","year":"2014","journal-title":"Thyroid"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Endocrinology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fendo.2025.1644270\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,26]],"date-time":"2025-08-26T04:13:45Z","timestamp":1756181625000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fendo.2025.1644270\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,26]]},"references-count":44,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fendo.2025.1644270"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fendo.2025.1644270","relation":{},"ISSN":["1664-2392"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1664-2392","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,26]]},"article-number":"1644270"}}