{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,6]],"date-time":"2026-11-06T20:59:20Z","timestamp":1793998760640,"version":"4.8.0"},"reference-count":20,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,31]],"date-time":"2025-07-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1753920000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Endocrinol."],"abstract":"<jats:sec><jats:title>Background<\/jats:title><jats:p>Obesity and physical inactivity exacerbate type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), whereas regular exercise improves glycemic control, fitness, and quality of life. However, many patients face barriers to attending clinic-based exercise programs. Digital health interventions could increase access and adherence by enabling guided outdoor exercise via smartphone. It remains unclear if a digital program can achieve outcomes comparable to traditional supervised exercise in obese adults with T2DM.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Objective<\/jats:title><jats:p>We aimed to evaluate the noninferiority of a 12-week digital outdoor exercise program, delivered via mobile app, compared to a standard clinic-based exercise intervention in obese adults with T2DM. The primary outcome was the change in glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c). Secondary outcomes included changes in body mass index (BMI), physical fitness, and quality of life. Adherence and cost-effectiveness were also assessed.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>We conducted a randomized controlled noninferiority trial at a single tertiary center. A total of 240 obese adults with T2DM were randomly assigned to either the digital outdoor exercise program (DOE) or a clinic-based exercise program (CBE). The digital intervention provided personalized aerobic and resistance exercise routines via a smartphone app with remote coaching, while the clinic group attended on-site supervised exercise sessions of similar frequency and intensity. Outcomes were measured at baseline and 12 weeks. The noninferiority margin for HbA1c was set at 0.4%. Analyses were performed on an intention-to-treat basis.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>A total of 240 obese adults with T2DM were randomized equally into DOE and CBE groups. After 24 weeks, both groups achieved significant, comparable reductions in HbA1c (DOE: -1.56 \u00b1 0.17%, CBE: -1.50 \u00b1 0.17%), BMI, waist circumference, and improved physical fitness, with no significant between-group differences. The DOE intervention demonstrated significantly lower costs (14,787.30 CNY) compared to CBE (17,920.05 CNY; p&amp;lt;0.001). Adherence was high in both groups, with similarly low adverse event rates.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title><jats:p>The 12-week smartphone-based outdoor exercise program was noninferior to a clinic-based program in improving HbA1c and BMI, and it produced similar gains in fitness and quality of life in obese adults with T2DM. Higher adherence in the digital intervention and its lower delivery cost indicate that digital exercise programs can be a cost-effective, scalable alternative to clinic-based interventions for managing T2DM.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Clinical trial registration<\/jats:title><jats:p><jats:uri>https:\/\/www.chictr.org.cn\/<\/jats:uri>, identifier ChiCTR2500104389.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2025.1654129","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,31]],"date-time":"2025-07-31T04:11:11Z","timestamp":1753935071000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Digital outdoor exercise program for obese patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: a non-inferiority randomized controlled trial"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Jian","family":"Cui","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Qiang","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lihua","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Haoyan","family":"Yu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/jdi.13908","article-title":"Diabetes care in China: Innovations and implications","volume":"13","author":"Jia","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Diabetes Investig"},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"m997","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.m997","article-title":"Prevalence of diabetes recorded in China using 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