{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,13]],"date-time":"2026-10-13T12:18:30Z","timestamp":1791893910115,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":40,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,13]],"date-time":"2025-10-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1760313600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Endocrinol."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) offers a unique opportunity to assess Q6 glucose patterns across the 24-hour day, including nighttime. In individuals with pregnancy hyperglycemia, evidence suggests that optimizing nocturnal glucose levels reduces the risk of large-for-gestational-age births and future metabolic dysfunction. However, the behavioral correlates of nocturnal glucose levels remain poorly understood. Continuous movement devices assess physical activity (PA) and sedentary behavior (SED) across 24-hour days, and to the best of our knowledge, have not been paired with CGM data in individuals with pregnancy hyperglycemia. This secondary analysis of a feasibility trial explored the association of day-time PA and SED with nighttime (i.e., 12\u20136 AM) interstitial glucose levels in individuals with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) or gestational glucose intolerance (GGI).<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Participants (N = 13; ~31 weeks gestation) wore a Dexcom G6 CGM and ActiGraph Insight Watch for 7 days. Mixed effects models examined associations between daytime moderate-tovigorous physical activity (MVPA), light physical activity (LPA), and sedentary behavior (SED) with nocturnal glucose metrics, including mean glucose, time in range (TIR; 60\u201399 mg\/dL), and area under the curve (AUC).<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Adjusted models revealed that each 10-minute increase in MVPA was associated with 0.86 mg\/dL [95% confidence interval (CI) 0.002, 1.73] higher mean glucose and 313 mg\/ dL*min (CI 0.98, 624.55) higher AUC. No associations were observed for total activity, LPA, or SED.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Discussion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>These findings illustrate the feasibility and potential of combining CGM with activity monitor data, and the need to further integrate dietary intake data. Improvements in glucose and activity monitoring technology hold great promise for improving scientific and clinical understanding and supporting the development of personalized, data-driven glucose management tools during pregnancy.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2025.1694758","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,13]],"date-time":"2025-10-13T04:17:32Z","timestamp":1760329052000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Daytime physical activity and nighttime glucose levels in individuals with pregnancy hyperglycemia: linking wearable activity trackers to continuous glucose monitoring"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Bethany Rand","family":"Hallenbeck","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jill M.","family":"Maples","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Scott E.","family":"Crouter","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hollie","family":"Raynor","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nikki B.","family":"Zite","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kimberly B.","family":"Fortner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Samantha F.","family":"Ehrlich","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajog.2010.04.006","article-title":"The Hyperglycemia and Adverse Pregnancy Outcome (HAPO) study: paving the way for new diagnostic criteria for gestational diabetes mellitus","volume":"202","author":"Coustan","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am J obstetrics gynecology."},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2337\/db08-1112","article-title":"Hyperglycemia and Adverse Pregnancy Outcome (HAPO) Study: associations with neonatal anthropometrics","volume":"58","author":"Metzger","year":"2009","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa042973","article-title":"Effect of treatment of gestational diabetes mellitus on pregnancy outcomes","volume":"352","author":"Crowther","year":"2005","journal-title":"New Engl J Med"},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa0902430","article-title":"A multicenter, randomized trial of treatment for mild gestational diabetes","volume":"361","author":"Landon","year":"2009","journal-title":"New Engl J Med"},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3109\/14767058.2010.546450","article-title":"50-Gram glucose challenge test: is it indicative of outcomes in women without gestational diabetes mellitus","volume":"24","author":"Yee","year":"2011","journal-title":"J Maternal-Fetal Neonatal Med"},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/AOG.0b013e3181ae8d85","article-title":"Carpenter-Coustan criteria compared with the national diabetes data group thresholds for gestational diabetes mellitus","volume":"114","author":"Cheng","year":"2009","journal-title":"Obstetrics Gynecology."},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2337\/dc08-0972","article-title":"Glucose intolerance in pregnancy and future risk of pre-diabetes or diabetes","volume":"31","author":"Retnakaran","year":"2008","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajog.2016.04.040","article-title":"Single abnormal value on 3-hour oral glucose tolerance test during pregnancy is associated with adverse maternal and neonatal outcomes: a systematic review and metaanalysis","volume":"215","author":"Roeckner","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am J Obstetrics Gynecology."},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajog.2006.01.028","article-title":"Women with one elevated 3-hour glucose tolerance test value: are they at risk for adverse perinatal outcomes","volume":"194","author":"McLaughlin","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am J obstetrics gynecology"},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/14767050701739384","article-title":"Glucose challenge test: screening threshold for gestational diabetes mellitus and associated outcomes","volume":"20","author":"Cheng","year":"2007","journal-title":"J Maternal-Fetal Neonatal Med"},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/01.AOG.0000109220.24211.BD","article-title":"False-positive 1-hour glucose challenge test and adverse perinatal outcomes","volume":"103","author":"Stamilio","year":"2004","journal-title":"Obstetrics Gynecology."},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1161\/01.hyp.23.6.717","article-title":"Glucose intolerance as a predictor of hypertension in pregnancy","volume":"23","author":"Solomon","year":"1994","journal-title":"Hypertension (Dallas Tex: 1979)."},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3109\/00016349309068036","article-title":"Hypertension and pre-eclampsia in women with gestational glucose intolerance","volume":"72","author":"Suhonen","year":"1993","journal-title":"Acta obstetricia gynecologica Scandinavica."},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/s0002-9378(98)70210-8","article-title":"The relationship between abnormal glucose tolerance and hypertensive disorders of pregnancy in healthy nulliparous women","volume":"179","author":"Joffe","year":"1998","journal-title":"Am J obstetrics gynecology."},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajog.2010.10.907","article-title":"The risk of large for gestational age across increasing categories of pregnancy glycemia","volume":"204","author":"Ehrlich","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am J Obstet Gynecol."},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2337\/dc18-2212","article-title":"Suboptimal nocturnal glucose control is associated with large for gestational age in treated gestational diabetes mellitus","volume":"42","author":"Law","year":"2019","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1089\/dia.2019.0319","article-title":"Continuous glucose monitoring and glycemic patterns in pregnant women with gestational diabetes mellitus","volume":"22","author":"M\u00e1rquez-Pardo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Diabetes Technol Ther"},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S19","DOI":"10.2337\/dc23-ad08","article-title":"2. Classification and diagnosis of diabetes: standards of care in diabetes-2023","volume":"46","author":"ElSayed","year":"2023","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2009","DOI":"10.1249\/MSS.0b013e318258cb36","article-title":"Assessment of wear\/nonwear time classification algorithms for triaxial accelerometer","volume":"44","author":"Choi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Med Sci sports exercise."},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1249\/MSS.0000000000001532","article-title":"Estimating energy expenditure with actiGraph GT9X inertial measurement unit","volume":"50","author":"Hibbing","year":"2018","journal-title":"Med Sci Sports Exerc."},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajog.2022.09.004","article-title":"Exploring the relationship between regular physical activity and the 24-hour glucose cycle in gestational glucose intolerance and gestational diabetes mellitus","volume":"228","author":"Ehrlich","year":"2022","journal-title":"Am J Obstet Gynecol"},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1089\/dia.2012.0223","article-title":"A standard approach to continuous glucose monitor data in pregnancy for the study of fetal growth and infant outcomes","volume":"15","author":"Hernandez","year":"2013","journal-title":"Diabetes Technol Ther"},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0306-4530(02)00108-7","article-title":"Two formulas for computation of the area under the curve represent measures of total hormone concentration versus time-dependent change","volume":"28","author":"Pruessner","year":"2003","journal-title":"Psychoneuroendocrinology."},{"key":"B24","volume-title":"Base SAS 9.4 procedures guide: Statistical Procedures, Fourth Edition","year":"2015"},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/sim.4293","article-title":"Avoiding bias in mixed model inference for fixed effects","volume":"30","author":"Gurka","year":"2011","journal-title":"Stat Med"},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1186\/s40842-021-00120-z","article-title":"Physical activity for blood glucose control in gestational diabetes mellitus: rationale and recommendations for translational behavioral interventions","volume":"7","author":"Onaade","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin Diabetes endocrinology."},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17176151","article-title":"Physical activity programs during pregnancy are effective for the control of gestational diabetes mellitus","volume":"17","author":"Laredo-Aguilera","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int J Environ Res Public Health"},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1139\/apnm-2017-0494","article-title":"Postprandial walking reduces glucose levels in women with gestational diabetes mellitus","volume":"43","author":"Coe","year":"2018","journal-title":"Appl physiology nutrition Metab = Physiologie appliquee Nutr metabolisme."},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100440","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajogmf.2021.100440","article-title":"Postprandial interval walking-effect on blood glucose in pregnant women with gestational diabetes","volume":"3","author":"Andersen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am J Obstet Gynecol MFM."},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1111\/ijpo.12174","article-title":"Influence of maternal physical activity on infant's body composition","author":"Bisson","year":"2017","journal-title":"Pediatr Obes"},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s40279-019-01193-8","article-title":"Associations of pregnancy physical activity with maternal cardiometabolic health, neonatal delivery outcomes and body composition in a biethnic cohort of 7305 mother-child pairs: the born in bradford study","volume":"50","author":"Collings","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sports Med (Auckland NZ)."},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41390-024-03574-w","article-title":"Maternal pregnancy diet quality, night eating, and offspring metabolic health: the GUSTO study","volume":"97","author":"Chen","year":"2025","journal-title":"Pediatr Res"},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2019-030036","article-title":"Maternal night-eating pattern and glucose tolerance during pregnancy: study protocol for a longitudinal study","volume":"9","author":"Loy","year":"2019","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"352","DOI":"10.1038\/s41746-025-01728-6","article-title":"High-resolution lifestyle profiling and metabolic subphenotypes of type 2 diabetes","volume":"8","author":"Park","year":"2025","journal-title":"NPJ Digital Med"},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/sleep\/zsw058","article-title":"Sleep quality and nocturnal sleep duration in pregnancy and risk of gestational diabetes mellitus","volume":"40","author":"Cai","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sleep"},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2337\/dc11-0780","article-title":"Sleep disturbances and their relationship to glucose tolerance in pregnancy","volume":"34","author":"Reutrakul","year":"2011","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/AOG.0000000000000959","article-title":"Sleep duration and blood glucose control in women with gestational diabetes mellitus","volume":"126","author":"Twedt","year":"2015","journal-title":"Obstet Gynecol."},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00404-021-06207-3","article-title":"Glucose tolerance test with a single abnormal value in pregnancy and the risk of type-2 diabetes mellitus","volume":"305","author":"Berezowsky","year":"2022","journal-title":"Arch Gynecol Obstet."},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2337\/dc08-0972","article-title":"Glucose intolerance in pregnancy and future risk of pre-diabetes or diabetes","volume":"31","author":"Retnakaran","year":"2008","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/hsc.14075","article-title":"Maternal mental health and social support from online communities during pregnancy","volume":"30","author":"Jiang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Health Soc Care Community."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Endocrinology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fendo.2025.1694758\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,13]],"date-time":"2025-10-13T04:17:35Z","timestamp":1760329055000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fendo.2025.1694758\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,13]]},"references-count":40,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fendo.2025.1694758"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fendo.2025.1694758","relation":{},"ISSN":["1664-2392"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1664-2392","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,13]]},"article-number":"1694758"}}