{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,15]],"date-time":"2026-04-15T05:41:33Z","timestamp":1776231693244,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":34,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,15]],"date-time":"2026-04-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1776211200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Endocrinol."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is a significant complication during pregnancy with varying prevalence across countries and ethnicities. In Taiwan, although GDM prevalence rose from 7.6% to 13.4% between 2004 and 2015, its maternal gestational and extended consequences remained underexamined. The nationwide population-based study aims to investigate GDM-related risk factors and identify the critical period during which GDM likely poses long-term health risks.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      A total of 206,831 adult pregnant women from the National Health Insurance Research Database were divided into GDM (\n                      <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u00a0=\u00a08,204) and non-GDM (\n                      <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u00a0=\u00a0198,627). After 1:1 matching of age and comorbidities, logistic and Cox regression was used to assess the odd and hazard ratio of maternal gestational and extended consequences of GDM. Kaplan-Meier analyses provided follow up events-free outcomes.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The incidence of preterm labor, preeclampsia, and gestational hypertension were significantly higher in the GDM group. The odd ratios of these consequences were 1.72, 2.86, and 2.85, respectively. GDM significantly affected the development of type 2 DM, chronic kidney disease (CKD), and ophthalmic disease. The hazard ratios of these diseases were 2.88, 1.54, and 1.63, respectively. Kaplan-Meier analysis revealed that GDM significantly increased these diseases during follow-up, especially within 2 years for type 2 DM and within 1 year for CKD and ophthalmic disease after delivery.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Concolusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>GDM was associated with higher risks of preterm labor, gestational hypertension, preeclampsia, type 2 DM, CKD, and ophthalmic disease. Postpartum GDM follow-up time is 2 years for type-2 DM and 1 year for CKD and ophthalmic disease.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2026.1809244","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,15]],"date-time":"2026-04-15T04:41:43Z","timestamp":1776228103000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Gestational and postpartum maternal consequences of gestational diabetes mellitus"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Chung-Kuan","family":"Wu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Nephrology, Department of Internal Medicine, Shin-Kong Wu Ho-Su Memorial Hospital","place":["Taipei, Taiwan"]},{"name":"School of Medicine, Fu-Jen Catholic University","place":["New Taipei, Taiwan"]},{"name":"Division of Digital Informatics Management, Department of Digital Medicine, Shin Kong Wu Ho-Su Memorial Hospital","place":["Taipei, Taiwan"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Chia-Yi","family":"Chang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Cathay General Hospital","place":["Taipei, Taiwan"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kok-Min","family":"Seow","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Shin-Kong Wu Ho-Su Memorial Hospital","place":["Taipei, Taiwan"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yen-Chun","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of artificial intelligence, Tamkang University","place":["New Taipei City, Taiwan"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Chien-Wei","family":"Chuang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"AI Development Center, Fu Jen Catholic University","place":["New Taipei City, Taiwan"]},{"name":"Graduate Institute of Business Administration, College of Management, Fu Jen Catholic University","place":["New Taipei City, Taiwan"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Mingchih","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"AI Development Center, Fu Jen Catholic University","place":["New Taipei City, Taiwan"]},{"name":"Graduate Institute of Business Administration, College of Management, Fu Jen Catholic University","place":["New Taipei City, Taiwan"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diabres.2021.109050","article-title":"IDF diabetes atlas: estimation of global and regional gestational diabetes mellitus prevalence for 2021 by international association of diabetes in pregnancy study group's criteria","volume":"183","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Diabetes Res Clin Pract"},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"494","DOI":"10.1186\/s12884-018-2131-4","article-title":"Prevalence and risk factors of gestational diabetes mellitus in Asia: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"18","author":"Lee","year":"2018","journal-title":"BMC Pregnancy Childbirth"},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/jdi.13595","article-title":"Increasing trend in the prevalence of gestational diabetes mellitus in Taiwan","volume":"12","author":"Su","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Diabetes Investig"},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms19113342","article-title":"The pathophysiology of gestational diabetes mellitus","volume":"19","author":"Plows","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int J Mol Sci"},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diabres.2020.108044","article-title":"Maternal age and the risk of gestational diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis of over 120 million participants","volume":"162","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Diabetes Res Clin Pract"},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/AOG.0000000000003410","article-title":"Endometriosis and risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes","volume":"134","author":"Farland","year":"2019","journal-title":"Obstet Gynecol"},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lfs.2022.121069","article-title":"Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) increases the risk of subsequent gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM): a novel therapeutic perspective","volume":"310","author":"Choudhury","year":"2022","journal-title":"Life Sci"},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/AOG.0b013e31829006d9","article-title":"Tubal factor infertility and perinatal risk after assisted reproductive technology","volume":"121","author":"Kawwass","year":"2013","journal-title":"Obstet Gynecol"},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajog.2007.12.039","article-title":"Fibroids and reproductive outcomes: a systematic literature review from conception to delivery","volume":"198","author":"Klatsky","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am J Obstet Gynecol"},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1245\/s10434-011-1815-z","article-title":"Risk and predictors of Malignancy in women with endometrial polyps","volume":"18","author":"Wethington","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ann Surg Oncol"},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.17816\/JOWD69117-26","article-title":"Preterm birth in women with diabetes mellitus","volume":"69","author":"Kapustin","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Obstet Womens Dis"},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj-2021-067946","article-title":"Gestational diabetes mellitus and adverse pregnancy outcomes: systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"377","author":"Ye","year":"2022","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1159\/000371628","article-title":"Gestational diabetes mellitus and macrosomia: a literature review","volume":"66","author":"Kc","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ann Nutr Metab"},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1089\/ars.2010.3765","article-title":"The role of oxidative stress in the pathophysiology of gestational diabetes mellitus","volume":"15","author":"Lappas","year":"2011","journal-title":"Antioxid Redox Signal"},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fcvm.2022.831297","article-title":"Gestational diabetes mellitus and preeclampsia: correlation and influencing factors","volume":"9","author":"Yang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front Cardiovasc Med"},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.m1361","article-title":"Progression to type 2 diabetes in women with a known history of gestational diabetes: systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"369","author":"Vounzoulaki","year":"2020","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajog.2010.01.024","article-title":"Hyperglycemia and Adverse Pregnancy Outcome (HAPO) study: preeclampsia","volume":"202","author":"Yogev","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am J Obstet Gynecol"},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2022.3189","article-title":"Risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes among pregnant individuals with gestational diabetes by race and ethnicity in the United States, 2014-2020","volume":"327","author":"Venkatesh","year":"2022","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2337\/db07-1356","article-title":"Increased skeletal muscle tumor necrosis factor-alpha and impaired insulin signaling persist in obese women with gestational diabetes mellitus 1 year postpartum","volume":"57","author":"Friedman","year":"2008","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2022.1012244","article-title":"Progression to type 2 diabetes mellitus after gestational diabetes mellitus diagnosed by IADPSG criteria: systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"13","author":"Juan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front Endocrinol (Lausanne)"},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(09)60731-5","article-title":"Type 2 diabetes mellitus after gestational diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"373","author":"Bellamy","year":"2009","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2337\/diacare.25.10.1862","article-title":"Gestational diabetes and the incidence of type 2 diabetes: a systematic review","volume":"25","author":"Kim","year":"2002","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2337\/dc17-2629","article-title":"Gestational diabetes mellitus and renal function: a prospective study with 9- to 16-year follow-up after pregnancy","volume":"41","author":"Rawal","year":"2018","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajog.2013.09.027","article-title":"End-stage renal disease after hypertensive disorders in pregnancy","volume":"210","author":"Wu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am J Obstet Gynecol"},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0264992","article-title":"Does gestational diabetes increase the risk of maternal kidney disease? a Swedish national cohort study","volume":"17","author":"Barrett","year":"2022","journal-title":"PloS One"},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00404-017-4362-4","article-title":"Gestational diabetes mellitus is a significant risk factor for long-term ophthalmic morbidity","volume":"295","author":"Beharier","year":"2017","journal-title":"Arch Gynecol Obstet"},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1186\/s12886-016-0398-7","article-title":"Gestational diabetes mellitus and retinal microvasculature","volume":"17","author":"Li","year":"2017","journal-title":"BMC Ophthalmol"},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.4103\/ijmr.IJMR_852_18","article-title":"Risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus after gestational diabetes mellitus: a systematic review & meta-analysis","volume":"154","author":"You","year":"2021","journal-title":"Indian J Med Res"},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2337\/dc16-1400","article-title":"Role of type 2 diabetes in determining retinal, renal, and cardiovascular outcomes in women with previous gestational diabetes mellitus","volume":"40","author":"Retnakaran","year":"2017","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10552-017-0908-9","article-title":"Association of endometrial hyperplasia and cancer with a history of gestational diabetes","volume":"28","author":"Wartko","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cancer Causes Control"},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/bjc.2017.34","article-title":"Gestational diabetes mellitus may be associated with increased risk of breast cancer","volume":"116","author":"Park","year":"2017","journal-title":"Br J Cancer"},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/s0002-9378(94)70097-4","article-title":"Intensified versus conventional management of gestational diabetes","volume":"170","author":"Langer","year":"1994","journal-title":"Am J Obstet Gynecol"},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00404-016-4275-7","article-title":"The association between a history of gestational diabetes mellitus and future risk for female Malignancies","volume":"295","author":"Fuchs","year":"2017","journal-title":"Arch Gynecol Obstet"},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1097-0258(19960115)15:1<1::AID-SIM134>3.0.CO;2-E","article-title":"Formulae and tables for the determination of sample sizes and power in clinical trials for testing differences in proportions for the two-sample design: a review","volume":"15","author":"Sahai","year":"1996","journal-title":"Stat Med"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Endocrinology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fendo.2026.1809244\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,15]],"date-time":"2026-04-15T04:41:48Z","timestamp":1776228108000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fendo.2026.1809244\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,15]]},"references-count":34,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fendo.2026.1809244"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fendo.2026.1809244","relation":{},"ISSN":["1664-2392"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1664-2392","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,15]]},"article-number":"1809244"}}