{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]],"date-time":"2026-08-21T05:23:33Z","timestamp":1787289813102,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":20,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]],"date-time":"2026-08-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787270400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Endocrinol."],"abstract":"\n Background<\/jats:title>\n Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) and pre-gestational diabetes mellitus (PGDM) are jointly termed as diabetes mellitus during pregnancy. This condition exhibits a relatively high incidence rate and exerts adverse impacts on both the mother and the fetus.<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Objective<\/jats:title>\n To investigate the differential pregnancy outcomes and offspring development between pregnant women with and without diabetes mellitus during pregnancy.<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Methods<\/jats:title>\n A retrospective cohort study was carried out in China. From 2014 to 2016, all pregnant women in a specific region of Beijing who met the exclusion criteria, along with their offspring who had undergone physical examinations at ages ranging from 0 to 6, were selected as the research subjects between 2014 and 2023. We analyzed the outcomes separately for women with PGDM and GDM. SPSS 27.0 and R 4.2.2 were used to analyze the data.<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Results<\/jats:title>\n \n This three-year retrospective study included 49,912 deliveries from a specific region of Beijing, among which 49,765 were live births. The overall prevalence of diabetes during pregnancy was 8.6%, comprising 4,003 cases of GDM and 284 cases of PGDM. PGDM significantly increased the risks of neonatal hypoglycemia (\n OR<\/jats:italic>\n 17.344, 95%\n CI<\/jats:italic>\n 11.703\u201325.703) and neonatal infection (\n OR<\/jats:italic>\n 8.043, 95%\n CI<\/jats:italic>\n 5.584\u201311.585) (\n p<\/jats:italic>\n \u00a0&lt;\u00a00.001). GDM was identified as an independent risk factor for multiple adverse pregnancy outcomes. Notably, the strongest associations were observed for neonatal hypoglycemia (\n OR<\/jats:italic>\n 7.299, 95%\n CI<\/jats:italic>\n 5.844\u20139.116), pathological jaundice (\n OR<\/jats:italic>\n 7.264, 95%\n CI<\/jats:italic>\n 5.923\u20138.910), neonatal infection (\n OR<\/jats:italic>\n 2.876, 95%\n CI<\/jats:italic>\n 2.415\u20133.424), asphyxia neonatorum (OR 2.435, 95% CI 1.802\u20133.291), macrosomia (\n OR<\/jats:italic>\n 1.355, 95%\n CI<\/jats:italic>\n 1.217\u20131.508), and cesarean section (\n OR<\/jats:italic>\n 1.207, 95%\n CI<\/jats:italic>\n 1.131\u20131.288) (all\n p<\/jats:italic>\n \u00a0&lt;\u00a00.001). This study statistically analyzed 18, 590 pairs of mothers and children who had completed the national standard health check-up for children aged 0 to 6. Newborns in the diabetes during pregnancy group exhibited significantly higher body length and weight at birth compared to those in the non-diabetes group (\n p<\/jats:italic>\n &lt;\u00a00.001), However, from 3 to 72 months of age, the body length and weight distributions of children in both groups gradually converged, with the differences diminishing over time.\n <\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n Diabetes mellitus during pregnancy is associated with a substantially increased risk of adverse outcomes for both the mother and the neonate. Nevertheless, the influence on childhood physical development remains indeterminate. Strengthened screening and management of high-risk pregnant women, particularly those with diabetes, are of critical importance for reducing the incidence of adverse pregnancy outcomes and enhancing the health of both mothers and their progeny.<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2026.1811874","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]],"date-time":"2026-08-21T04:23:29Z","timestamp":1787286209000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Effects of diabetes mellitus during pregnancy on pregnancy outcomes and growth and development of children aged 0\u20136 years: a retrospective cohort study"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Tianzi","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of General Practice, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University","place":["Zhengzhou, China"]},{"name":"Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Capital Medical University Daxing Teaching Hospital","place":["Beijing, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lili","family":"Ma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Capital Medical University Daxing Teaching Hospital","place":["Beijing, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jun","family":"Gang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Beijing Daxing District Maternal and Child Health Hospital","place":["Beijing, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Feng","family":"Liang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Statistics, Beijing Institute of Petrochemical Technology","place":["Beijing, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiuhua","family":"Ma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Capital Medical University Daxing Teaching Hospital","place":["Beijing, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Juan","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of General Practice, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University","place":["Zhengzhou, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Meng","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of General Practice, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University","place":["Zhengzhou, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2022.819697","article-title":"Impact of remote monitoring technologies for assisting patients with gestational diabetes mellitus: a systematic review","volume":"10","author":"Bertini","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front Bioeng Biotechnol"},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0020-7292(15)30033-3","article-title":"The International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics (FIGO) initiative on gestational diabetes mellitus: a pragmatic guide for diagnosis, management, and care","volume":"131","author":"Hod","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int J Gynaecol Obstet"},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7759\/cureus.91727","article-title":"Effects of gestational diabetes mellitus on maternal and neonatal outcomes: a prospective cohort study in Northern Sri Lanka","volume":"17","author":"Guruparan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pcd.2021.09.007","article-title":"Maternal and newborn effects of gestational diabetes mellitus: a prospective cohort study","volume":"16","author":"Feleke","year":"2022","journal-title":"Prim Care Diabetes"},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.31729\/jnma.8775","article-title":"Effect of interpregnancy interval on pregnancy outcome in a tertiary care centre: a descriptive cross-sectional study","volume":"62","author":"Koirala","year":"2024","journal-title":"JNMA J Nepal Med Assoc"},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2025.117974","article-title":"Impact of the 2009 WIC revision on infant and maternal health: a quasi-experimental multi-state study","volume":"373","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Soc Sci Med"},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2337\/dc26-S015","article-title":"15. 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