{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,17]],"date-time":"2026-10-17T01:59:29Z","timestamp":1792202369222,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":43,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,6]],"date-time":"2023-01-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1672963200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Genet."],"abstract":"<jats:p><jats:bold>Background:<\/jats:bold> Observational evidence has shown that smoking, alcohol consumption, type 2 diabetes, and body mass index (BMI) are risk factors for peptic ulcer disease (PUD), including gastric ulcer (GU) and duodenal ulcer (DU). However, the observed associations may be confounding factors. Herein, we use Mendelian randomization (MR) to examine causal associations such as smoking, alcohol, type 2 diabetes, BMI, and risks of PUD.<\/jats:p><jats:p><jats:bold>Methods:<\/jats:bold> We used 8,17,41,325,82, 231, and 616 identified genetic variants as proxies for age of smoking initiation (AgeSmk), smoking cessation (SmkCes, current\/former), number of cigarettes smoked per day (CigDay), smoking status (SmkIni, ever\/never), alcohol consumption, type 2 diabetes, and BMI to obtain unconfounded effect estimates on the GU and DU levels among 452,264 participants from the Gene ATLAS. The causal relationship was estimated by using inverse-variance weighted (IVW) as the main method. Sensitivity analysis includes Cochran\u2019s Q test, the MR-Egger test, MR pleiotropy residual sum and outlier (MR-PRESSO), and MR-robust adjusted profile score (MR-RAPS). In addition, secondary MR analysis was conducted within summary data using genetic risk scores (GRSs) as instrumental variables (IVs).<\/jats:p><jats:p><jats:bold>Results:<\/jats:bold> In our two-sample MR analyses, genetic predisposition to smoking (SmkInit) and BMI were associated with an increased risk of GU. The beta values were 0.0035 (95% CI, 0.0021, 0.0049, <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic> = 1.56E-06) for smoking (SmkInit) and 0.0021 (95% CI, 0.0009, 0.0033, <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic> = 0.0008) for BMI. Genetic predisposition to smoking (SmkInit) and higher genetically predicted BMI were associated with an increased risk of DU. The beta values of DU were 0.0029 (95% CI, 0.0017, 0.0041, <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic> = 2.43E-06) for smoking (SmkInit) and 0.0018 (95% CI, 0.0007, 0.0029, <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic> = 0.001) for BMI. No other causal association between smoking (AgeSmk, CigDay, and SmkCes), alcohol consumption, type 2 diabetes, and GU or DU was observed. Consistent results were obtained in sensitivity analyses. Furthermore, the GRS approach showed similar results in the several MR methods.<\/jats:p><jats:p><jats:bold>Conclusion:<\/jats:bold> These findings do not support a causal role of AgeSmk, CigDay, SmkCes, alcohol consumption, and type 2 diabetes in the development of GU and DU. However, it is confirmed that SmkInit and BMI have a causal part in the development of GU and DU.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fgene.2022.992080","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,6]],"date-time":"2023-01-06T12:47:31Z","timestamp":1673009251000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":32,"title":["Smoking, alcohol consumption, diabetes, body mass index, and peptic ulcer risk: A two-sample Mendelian randomization study"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Yi","family":"Liu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhihan","family":"Xiao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kun","family":"Ye","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Linlin","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yanping","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"434","DOI":"10.1097\/00001648-200007000-00012","article-title":"Smoking and alcohol intake as risk factors for bleeding and perforated peptic ulcers: A population-based cohort study","volume":"11","author":"Andersen","year":"2000","journal-title":"Epidemiology"},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1025","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwj129","article-title":"Peptic ulcer disease in a general adult population: The kalixanda study: A random population-based study","volume":"163","author":"Aro","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. 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