{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,1]],"date-time":"2026-04-01T06:22:05Z","timestamp":1775024525122,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":75,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,6]],"date-time":"2025-06-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1749168000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Genet."],"abstract":"<jats:sec><jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title><jats:p>Toll-like receptors (<jats:italic>TLR<\/jats:italic>s) are pattern recognition receptors essential for immune defense against pathogens, activating the host\u2019s immune response by recognizing conserved pathogen structures. The Chinese spiny frog (<jats:italic>Quasipaa spinosa<\/jats:italic>), an amphibian native to southern China and northern Vietnam, has been severely impacted by recent infectious disease outbreaks caused by bacterial, viral, and parasitic infections, which threaten the sustainable development of the <jats:italic>Q. spinosa<\/jats:italic> farming industry. However, the roles of <jats:italic>Q. spinosa<\/jats:italic><jats:italic>TLRs<\/jats:italic> (<jats:italic>QsTLRs<\/jats:italic>) in combating these exogenous pathogens have not yet been explored.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>In the study, using the whole genome data of <jats:italic>Q. spinosa<\/jats:italic>, bioinformatics tools were employed to identify and analyze the <jats:italic>TLR<\/jats:italic> gene family. The bacteria <jats:italic>Elizabethkingia miricola<\/jats:italic>, a common pathogen, which causes the cataract disease and can lead to serious death of the frog. Here, we selected the bacteria to conduct the challenge experiment in order to characterize the immune responses of the <jats:italic>TLR<\/jats:italic> genes of <jats:italic>Q. spinosa<\/jats:italic> against bacterial infection.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>The analysis identified 17 members of the <jats:italic>TLR<\/jats:italic> gene family in <jats:italic>Q. spinosa<\/jats:italic>. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that <jats:italic>QsTLRs<\/jats:italic> can be classified into seven subfamilies: <jats:italic>TLR1<\/jats:italic>, <jats:italic>TLR3<\/jats:italic>, <jats:italic>TLR4<\/jats:italic>, <jats:italic>TLR5<\/jats:italic>, <jats:italic>TLR7<\/jats:italic>, <jats:italic>TLR11<\/jats:italic>, and <jats:italic>TLR13<\/jats:italic>. Conserved synteny analysis indicated that <jats:italic>Q. spinosa<\/jats:italic> is more closely related to <jats:italic>Rana temporaria<\/jats:italic> than to <jats:italic>Xenopus laevis<\/jats:italic>. Protein structure prediction and motif analysis demonstrated that all <jats:italic>QsTLRs<\/jats:italic> are relatively conserved in both structure and function. mRNA expression levels of <jats:italic>QsTLRs<\/jats:italic> in spleen tissues were measured following stimulation with <jats:italic>Elizabethkingia miricola<\/jats:italic>, which revealing that 15 <jats:italic>QsTLR<\/jats:italic> genes exhibited up-regulation at various time points post-stimulation.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Discussion<\/jats:title><jats:p>These findings provide a comprehensive understanding of the <jats:italic>QsTLR<\/jats:italic> gene family and lay the groundwork for future studies exploring the functional evolution of the amphibian <jats:italic>TLR<\/jats:italic> gene family.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fgene.2025.1569669","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,6]],"date-time":"2025-06-06T05:23:35Z","timestamp":1749187415000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Genome-wide identification and characterisation of Toll-like receptors in Chinese spiny frog (Quasipaa spinosa)"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Zehong","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zihan","family":"Gao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Dexin","family":"Mo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zifeng","family":"Zhu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jingqi","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Mujin","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Han","family":"Xiao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Meng","family":"Zhou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Teng","family":"Gao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Rishen","family":"Liang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1187","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yexcr.2013.02.013","article-title":"A reference transcriptome and inferred proteome for the salamander Notophthalmus viridescens","volume":"319","author":"Abdullayev","year":"2013","journal-title":"Exp. 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