{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,7]],"date-time":"2026-08-07T16:52:53Z","timestamp":1786121573266,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":39,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,7]],"date-time":"2026-08-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1786060800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Glob. Women\u2019s Health"],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Tracheal, bronchial, and lung (TBL) cancer attributable to environmental and behavioral exposures remains a major global health concern. However, evidence on long-term trends, inequalities, and future burden among women remains limited. This study used Global Burden of Disease (GBD) 2023 data to address these gaps.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>We analyzed female TBL cancer data from the GBD 2023 (1990\u20132023) to assess mortality and disability-adjusted life year (DALY) patterns associated with five rountine inhalation-related risk factors. We further evaluated associations with the socio-demographic index (SDI) using smoothing and deviation analyses, quantified SDI-related inequalities through concentration indices, decomposed burden changes by demographic and epidemiological factors, and projected the burden to 2030.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>In 2023, smoking remained the leading contributor to female TBL cancer mortality, followed by ambient particulate matter and secondhand smoke. Between 1990 and 2023, mortality attributable to household solid fuel declined most markedly, whereas mortality related to particulate matter increased slightly. Comparable trends were observed for DALYs. Marked cross-country and regional heterogeneity was observed by risk factors, with China standing out for particulate matter-related burden. Along socio-demographic gradients, burdens from radon and tobacco-related hazards rose with SDI alongside elevated concentration indices, whereas solid fuel burdens declined with increasingly negative concentration indices, and particulate matter displayed a rising burden but diminishing inequality. Population growth and aging drove increases in burdens from particulate matter, radon, and tobacco, whereas epidemiological change reduced solid fuel-related burden. By 2030, burdens attributable to particulate matter, radon, and secondhand smoke are projected to continue increasing, whereas the burden related to solid fuel is expected to decline. Although the number of smoking-related cases is projected to increase, the corresponding rate is expected to decrease.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Our findings underscore the need to prioritize surveillance of inhalation-related hazards for female TBL cancer, especially in resource-limited and rapidly developing regions beyond traditionally industrialized settings.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fgwh.2026.1662451","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,7]],"date-time":"2026-08-07T05:29:38Z","timestamp":1786080578000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Trends, inequalities, and 2030 projections of women's tracheal, bronchial, and lung cancer attributable to air pollution, radon, and tobacco exposure"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"7","author":[{"given":"Songsong","family":"Wang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Public Health Monitoring and Evaluation, Yantai Center for Disease Control and Prevention","place":["Yantai, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Congcong","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Yangzhou Hongquan Hospital","place":["Yangzhou, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hanpeng","family":"Lai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Public Health, Yangzhou University","place":["Yangzhou, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ebiom.2022.103951","article-title":"Worldwide burden and epidemiological trends of tracheal, bronchus, and lung cancer: a population-based study","volume":"78","author":"Zhou","year":"2022","journal-title":"EBioMedicine"},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102804","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eclinm.2024.102804","article-title":"Global, regional, and national burden of tracheal, bronchus, and lung cancer and its risk factors from 1990 to 2021: findings from the global burden of disease study 2021","volume":"75","author":"Kuang","year":"2024","journal-title":"eClinicalMed"},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.canep.2024.102693","article-title":"Global burden of lung cancer in 2022 and projections to 2050: incidence and mortality estimates from GLOBOCAN","volume":"93","author":"Zhou","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cancer Epidemiol"},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.1002\/jat.4227","article-title":"The effects of thirdhand smoke on reproductive health","volume":"42","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Appl Toxicol"},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"153406","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tox.2022.153406","article-title":"Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate aggravates fine particulate matter-induced asthma in weanling mice due to T follicular helper cell-dependent response","volume":"484","author":"Han","year":"2023","journal-title":"Toxicology"},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1186\/s13045-024-01640-8","article-title":"Global burden of cancer and associated risk factors in 204 countries and territories, 1980\u20132021: a systematic analysis for the GBD 2021","volume":"17","author":"Wu","year":"2024","journal-title":"J Hematol Oncol"},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"113907","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2021.113907","article-title":"Adapting the environmental risk transition theory for urban health inequities: an observational study examining complex environmental riskscapes in seven neighborhoods in Global North cities","volume":"277","author":"Cole","year":"2021","journal-title":"Soc Sci Med"},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1565","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(25)01635-6","article-title":"The global, regional, and national burden of cancer, 1990\u20132023, with forecasts to 2050: a systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2023","volume":"406","author":"Force","year":"2025","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1813","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(16)31467-2","article-title":"Measuring the health-related sustainable development goals in 188 countries: a baseline analysis from the global burden of disease study 2015","volume":"388","author":"Collaborators","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1177\/18333583221106509","article-title":"International classification of diseases clinical coding training: an international survey","volume":"53","author":"Otero Varela","year":"2024","journal-title":"Health Information Management Journal"},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/1478-7954-10-1","article-title":"Modeling causes of death: an integrated approach using CODEm","volume":"10","author":"Foreman","year":"2012","journal-title":"Popul Health Metr"},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1736","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(18)32203-7","article-title":"Global, regional, and national age-sex-specific mortality for 282 causes of death in 195 countries and territories, 1980\u20132017: a systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2017","volume":"392","author":"Roth","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"565","DOI":"10.1007\/s00038-014-0552-z","article-title":"Calculating disability-adjusted life years to quantify burden of disease","volume":"59","author":"Devleesschauwer","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int J Public Health"},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-3010.2005.00470.x","article-title":"Food, nutrition, physical activity, and the prevention of cancer: a global perspective","volume":"1","author":"Fund","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am Inst Cancer Res"},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1989","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(24)00476-8","article-title":"Global age-sex-specific mortality, life expectancy, and population estimates in 204 countries and territories and 811 subnational locations, 1950\u20132021, and the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic: a comprehensive demographic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2021","volume":"403","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1007\/s11155-006-9021-6","article-title":"Monte-Carlo-type techniques for processing interval uncertainty, and their potential engineering applications","volume":"13","author":"Kreinovich","year":"2007","journal-title":"Reliable Computing"},{"key":"B17","first-page":"97","author":"Gupta","year":"1993","journal-title":"Standardization and Decomposition of Rates: A User's Manual (No. 186)"},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4627","DOI":"10.1002\/sim.6248","article-title":"A Bayesian generalized age\u2013period\u2013cohort power model for cancer projections","volume":"33","author":"J\u00fcrgens","year":"2014","journal-title":"Stat Med"},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101485","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lanwpc.2025.101485","article-title":"Burden of respiratory tract cancers in China and its provinces, 1990\u20132021: a systematic analysis of the global burden of disease study 2021","volume":"55","author":"Liu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Lancet Reg Health West Pac"},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pccm.2023.11.002","article-title":"Asian, regional, and national burdens of respiratory tract cancers and associated risk factors from 1990 to 2019: a systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2019","volume":"1","author":"Zhong","year":"2023","journal-title":"Chin Med J Pulm Crit Care Med"},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1030","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(21)00164-8","article-title":"Global, regional, and national burden of respiratory tract cancers and associated risk factors from 1990 to 2019: a systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2019","volume":"9","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet Respir Med"},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"440","DOI":"10.1002\/mdr2.70031","article-title":"Global, regional, and national burden of cancer in the elderly population, 1990\u20132021: analysis of data from the global burden of disease study 2021","volume":"1","author":"Zhu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Med Res"},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1186\/s12940-024-01060-8","article-title":"Global patterns of asthma burden related to environmental risk factors during 1990\u20132019: an age-period-cohort analysis for global burden of disease study 2019","volume":"23","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Environ Health"},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cllc.2023.10.007","article-title":"Lung cancer in women: the past, present, and future","volume":"25","author":"Florez","year":"2024","journal-title":"Clin Lung Cancer"},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"926","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.1307490","article-title":"Particulate matter air pollution exposure, distance to road, and incident lung cancer in the nurses\u2019 health study cohort","volume":"122","author":"Puett","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ Health Perspect"},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eclinm.2024.102706","article-title":"Challenges of lung cancer control in Asia","volume":"74","author":"Chiu","year":"2024","journal-title":"eClinicalMed"},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"672","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2007.126631","article-title":"Secondhand smoke exposure among women and children: evidence from 31 countries","volume":"98","author":"Wipfli","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am J Public Health"},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1144","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejca.2013.10.014","article-title":"Convergence of decreasing male and increasing female incidence rates in major tobacco-related cancers in Europe in 1988\u20132010","volume":"51","author":"Lortet-Tieulent","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur J Cancer"},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"971","DOI":"10.1089\/jwh.2007.0621","article-title":"Gender differences in smoking behaviors in an Asian population","volume":"17","author":"Tsai","year":"2008","journal-title":"J Women\u2019s Health"},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.38308.477650.63","article-title":"Radon in homes and risk of lung cancer: collaborative analysis of individual data from 13 European case-control studies","volume":"330","author":"Darby","year":"2005","journal-title":"Br Med J"},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e358","DOI":"10.1016\/S2542-5196(23)00053-0","article-title":"Effect of air pollution on disease burden, mortality, and life expectancy in north Africa and the Middle East: a systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2019","volume":"7","author":"Abbasi-Kangevari","year":"2023","journal-title":"Lancet Planet Health"},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"010411","DOI":"10.7189\/jogh.07.010411","article-title":"Solar powered oxygen systems in remote health centers in Papua New Guinea: a large scale implementation effectiveness trial","volume":"7","author":"Duke","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Glob Health"},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"944","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(12)61149-0","article-title":"Achieving universal health coverage in low-income settings","volume":"380","author":"Sachs","year":"2012","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7189\/jogh.11.04055","article-title":"A comparative analysis and review of how national guidelines for chronic disease monitoring are made in low-and middle-income compared to high-income countries","volume":"11","author":"Mukonda","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Glob Health"},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e2445525","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2024.45525","article-title":"Trends in hepatocellular carcinoma mortality rates in the US and projections through 2040","volume":"7","author":"Qiu","year":"2024","journal-title":"JAMA Netw Open"},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e70155","DOI":"10.1111\/liv.70155","article-title":"Global burden of chronic liver disease and temporal trends: a population-based analysis from 1990 to 2021 with projections to 2050","volume":"45","author":"Zhao","year":"2025","journal-title":"Liver Int"},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102144","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aohep.2025.102144","article-title":"Trends and health inequalities of hepatitis virus-associated liver cancer mortality during 1990\u20132050","volume":"31","author":"Deng","year":"2025","journal-title":"Ann Hepatol"},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102752","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eclinm.2024.102752","article-title":"Temporal trend of drug overdose-related deaths and excess deaths during the COVID-19 pandemic: a population-based study in the United States from 2012 to 2022","volume":"74","author":"Zhao","year":"2024","journal-title":"eClinicalMed"},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1601089","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2025.1601089","article-title":"Global spatiotemporal trends and influencing factors of type 2 diabetes mellitus mortality: estimates and predictions from 1990 to 2040","volume":"16","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Front Endocrinol (Lausanne)"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Global Women's Health"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fgwh.2026.1662451\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,7]],"date-time":"2026-08-07T05:29:40Z","timestamp":1786080580000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fgwh.2026.1662451\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,7]]},"references-count":39,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fgwh.2026.1662451"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fgwh.2026.1662451","relation":{},"ISSN":["2673-5059"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2673-5059","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,7]]},"article-number":"1662451"}}