{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T21:05:56Z","timestamp":1791234356130,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":99,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,24]],"date-time":"2020-11-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1606176000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000265","name":"Medical Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000265","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Immunol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection triggers rapid induction of multiple innate cytokines including type I interferons, which play important roles in viral control and disease pathogenesis. The transforming growth factor (TGF)-\u03b2 superfamily is a pleiotropic innate cytokine family, some members of which (activins and bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs)) were recently demonstrated to exert antiviral activity against Zika and hepatitis B and C viruses but are poorly studied in HIV-1 infection. Here, we show that TGF-\u03b2\n                    <jats:sub>1<\/jats:sub>\n                    is systemically induced with very rapid kinetics (as early as 1\u20134 days after viremic spread begins) in acute HIV-1 infection, likely due to release from platelets, and remains upregulated throughout infection. Contrastingly, no substantial systemic upregulation of activins A and B or BMP-2 was observed during acute infection, although plasma activin levels trended to be elevated during chronic infection. HIV-1 triggered production of type I interferons but not TGF-\u03b2 superfamily cytokines from plasmacytoid dendritic cells (DCs)\n                    <jats:italic>in vitro<\/jats:italic>\n                    , putatively explaining their differing\n                    <jats:italic>in vivo<\/jats:italic>\n                    induction; whilst lipopolysaccharide (but not HIV-1) elicited activin A production from myeloid DCs. These findings underscore the need for better definition of the protective and pathogenic capacity of TGF-\u03b2 superfamily cytokines, to enable appropriate modulation for therapeutic purposes.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.596841","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,24]],"date-time":"2020-11-24T00:02:17Z","timestamp":1606176137000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":25,"title":["Dynamics of Transforming Growth Factor (TGF)-\u03b2 Superfamily Cytokine Induction During HIV-1 Infection Are Distinct From Other Innate Cytokines"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Matthew","family":"Dickinson","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anna 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