{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]],"date-time":"2026-09-23T18:43:42Z","timestamp":1790189022951,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":90,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,9]],"date-time":"2021-03-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1615248000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Immunol."],"abstract":"<jats:p><jats:italic>Toxoplasma gondii<\/jats:italic> is a prevalent parasite of medical and veterinary importance. Tachyzo\u00eftes and bradyzo\u00eftes are responsible for acute and chronic toxoplasmosis (AT and CT), respectively. In immunocompetent hosts, AT evolves into a persistent CT, which can reactivate in immunocompromised patients with dire consequences. Imiquimod is an efficient immunomodulatory drug against certain viral and parasitic infections. <jats:italic>In vivo<\/jats:italic>, treatment with Imiquimod, throughout AT, reduces the number of brain cysts while rendering the remaining cysts un-infectious. Post-establishment of CT, Imiquimod significantly reduces the number of brain cysts, leading to a delay or abortion of reactivation. At the molecular level, Imiquimod upregulates the expression of Toll-like receptors 7, 11, and 12, following interconversion from bradyzo\u00eftes to tachyzo\u00eftes. Consequently, MyD88 pathway is activated, resulting in the induction of the immune response to control reactivated <jats:italic>Toxoplasma<\/jats:italic> foci. This study positions Imiquimod as a potent drug against toxoplasmosis and elucidates its mechanism of action particularly against chronic toxoplasmosis, which is the most prevalent form of the disease.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.629917","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,9]],"date-time":"2021-03-09T13:06:24Z","timestamp":1615295184000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":16,"title":["Imiquimod Targets Toxoplasmosis Through Modulating Host Toll-Like Receptor-MyD88 Signaling"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Maguy","family":"Hamie","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rania","family":"Najm","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Carine","family":"Deleuze-Masquefa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pierre Antoine","family":"Bonnet","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jean-Fran\u00e7ois","family":"Dubremetz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marwan","family":"El Sabban","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hiba","family":"El Hajj","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1007\/s00436-010-1899-6","article-title":"Toxoplasma gondii: determinants of tachyzoite to bradyzoite conversion","volume":"107","author":"Skariah","year":"2010","journal-title":"Parasitol Res."},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.05013-11","article-title":"Epidemiology of and diagnostic strategies for toxoplasmosis","volume":"25","author":"Robert-Gangneux","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clin Microbiol Rev."},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1080\/00325481.2019.1568792","article-title":"High burden and low awareness of toxoplasmosis in the United States","volume":"131","author":"Ben-Harari","year":"2019","journal-title":"Postgrad Med."},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2005-02-0666","article-title":"CD11c- and CD11b-expressing mouse leukocytes transport single Toxoplasma gondii tachyzoites to the brain","volume":"107","author":"Courret","year":"2006","journal-title":"Blood."},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"615","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00005-17","article-title":"Toxoplasma effectors targeting host signaling and transcription","volume":"30","author":"Hakimi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin Microbiol Rev."},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"519","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2017.04.001","article-title":"Brains and brawn: toxoplasma infections of the central nervous system and skeletal muscle","volume":"33","author":"Wohlfert","year":"2017","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol."},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"870","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2019.08.001","article-title":"Toxoplasma and dendritic cells: an intimate relationship that deserves further scrutiny","volume":"35","author":"Poncet","year":"2019","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol."},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e90203","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0090203","article-title":"Toxoplasmosis\u2013a global threat. 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