{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,11]],"date-time":"2026-09-11T12:03:55Z","timestamp":1789128235019,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":156,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,2]],"date-time":"2021-03-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1614643200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Immunol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Chronic graft rejection remains a significant barrier to solid organ transplantation as a treatment for end-organ failure. Patients receiving organ transplants typically require systemic immunosuppression in the form of pharmacological immunosuppressants for the duration of their lives, leaving these patients vulnerable to opportunistic infections, malignancies, and other use-restricting side-effects. In recent years, a substantial amount of research has focused on the use of cell-based therapies for the induction of graft tolerance. Inducing or adoptively transferring regulatory cell types, including regulatory T cells, myeloid-derived suppressor cells, and IL-10 secreting B cells, has the potential to produce graft-specific tolerance in transplant recipients. Significant progress has been made in the optimization of these cell-based therapeutic strategies as our understanding of their underlying mechanisms increases and new immunoengineering technologies become more widely available. Still, many questions remain to be answered regarding optimal cell types to use, appropriate dosage and timing, and adjuvant therapies. In this review, we summarize what is known about the cellular mechanisms that underly the current cell-based therapies being developed for the prevention of allograft rejection, the different strategies being explored to optimize these therapies, and all of the completed and ongoing clinical trials involving these therapies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.631365","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,2]],"date-time":"2021-03-02T00:02:54Z","timestamp":1614643374000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":28,"title":["Adoptive Transfer of Regulatory Immune Cells in Organ Transplantation"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Nathaniel","family":"Oberholtzer","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Carl","family":"Atkinson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Satish N.","family":"Nadig","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"891","DOI":"10.1111\/tri.12553","article-title":"The need for minimization strategies: current problems of immunosuppression","volume":"28","author":"Bamoulid","year":"2015","journal-title":"Transplant Int"},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/bja\/aer384","article-title":"Organ transplantation: historical perspective and current practice","volume":"108","author":"Watson","year":"2012","journal-title":"Br J Anaesth"},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s40472-016-0115-8","article-title":"What Is Direct Allorecognition","volume":"3","author":"Boardman","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr Transplant Rep"},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.177.6.1643","article-title":"Contribution of direct and indirect recognition pathways to T cell alloreactivity","volume":"177","author":"Liu","year":"1993","journal-title":"J Exp Med"},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/MOT.0000000000000263","article-title":"Direct and indirect allograft recognition: pathways dictating graft rejection mechanisms","volume":"21","author":"Lin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr Opin Organ Transplant"},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/ajt.14747","article-title":"Engineering therapeutic T cells to suppress alloimmune responses using TCRs, CARs, or BARs","volume":"18","author":"Sicard","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am J Transplant"},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.051584498","article-title":"Indirect recognition of allopeptides promotes the development of cardiac allograft vasculopathy","volume":"98","author":"Lee","year":"2001","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci USA"},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-6143.2009.02572.x","article-title":"Direct versus indirect allorecognition pathways: on the right track","volume":"9","author":"Benichou","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am J Transplant"},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1681\/ASN.2014060588","article-title":"Disappearance of T Cell-Mediated Rejection Despite Continued Antibody-Mediated Rejection in Late Kidney Transplant Recipients","volume":"26","author":"Halloran","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Am Soc Nephrol"},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/TP.0b013e31829853ce","article-title":"Allorecognition pathways in transplant rejection and tolerance","volume":"96","author":"Ali","year":"2013","journal-title":"Transplantation"},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1151","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.155.3.1151","article-title":"Immunologic self-tolerance maintained by activated T cells expressing IL-2 receptor alpha-chains (CD25). 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