{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,24]],"date-time":"2026-10-24T14:42:49Z","timestamp":1792852969853,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":122,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,20]],"date-time":"2021-04-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1618876800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Immunol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have garnered significant interest in recent years due to their contributions to cell-to-cell communication and disease processes. EVs are composed of a complex profile of bioactive molecules, which include lipids, nucleic acids, metabolites, and proteins. Although the biogenesis of EVs released by cells under various normal and abnormal conditions has been well-studied, there is incomplete knowledge about how infection influences EV biogenesis. EVs from infected cells contain specific molecules of both host and pathogen origin that may contribute to pathogenesis and the elicitation of the host immune response. Intracellular pathogens exhibit diverse lifestyles that undoubtedly dictate the mechanisms by which their molecules enter the cell\u2019s exosome biogenesis schemes. We will discuss the current understanding of the mechanisms used during infection to traffic molecules from their vacuolar niche to host EVs by selected intravacuolar pathogens. We initially review general exosome biogenesis schemes and then discuss what is known about EV biogenesis in\n                    <jats:italic>Mycobacterium, Plasmodium, Toxoplasma<\/jats:italic>\n                    , and\n                    <jats:italic>Leishmania<\/jats:italic>\n                    infections, which are pathogens that reside within membrane delimited compartments in phagocytes at some time in their life cycle within mammalian hosts. The review includes discussion of the need for further studies into the biogenesis of EVs to better understand the contributions of these vesicles to host-pathogen interactions, and to uncover potential therapeutic targets to control these pathogens.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.662944","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,20]],"date-time":"2021-04-20T00:53:16Z","timestamp":1618879996000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":31,"title":["Intravacuolar Pathogens Hijack Host Extracellular Vesicle Biogenesis to Secrete Virulence Factors"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Anna","family":"Gioseffi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mariola J.","family":"Edelmann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Peter E.","family":"Kima","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2014.06.013","article-title":"Origin and functions of tissue macrophages","volume":"41","author":"Epelman","year":"2014","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.15252\/embr.201439363","article-title":"Exosomes and other extracellular vesicles in host-pathogen interactions","volume":"16","author":"Schorey","year":"2015","journal-title":"EMBO Rep"},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cellimm.2016.07.013","article-title":"Leishmania exosomes and other virulence factors: Impact on innate immune response and macrophage functions","volume":"309","author":"Atayde","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cell Immunol"},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/v7092862","article-title":"Exosome Biogenesis, Regulation, and Function in Viral Infection","volume":"7","author":"Alenquer","year":"2015","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1083\/jcb.201211138","article-title":"Extracellular vesicles: exosomes, microvesicles, and friends","volume":"200","author":"Raposo","year":"2013","journal-title":"J Cell Biol"},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3402\/jev.v4.27066","article-title":"Biological properties of extracellular vesicles and their physiological functions","volume":"4","author":"Y\u00e1\u00f1ez-M\u00f3","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Extracell Vesicles"},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3402\/jev.v2i0.20389","article-title":"As we wait: coping with an imperfect nomenclature for extracellular vesicles","volume":"2","author":"Gould","year":"2013","journal-title":"J Extracell Vesicles"},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/bjc.1972.33","article-title":"Apoptosis: a basic biological phenomenon with wide-ranging implications in tissue kinetics","volume":"26","author":"Kerr","year":"1972","journal-title":"Br J Cancer"},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-cellbio-101512-122326","article-title":"Biogenesis, secretion, and intercellular interactions of exosomes and other extracellular vesicles","volume":"30","author":"Colombo","year":"2014","journal-title":"Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol"},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nrneph.2017.148","article-title":"Isolation and characterization of urinary extracellular vesicles: implications for biomarker discovery","volume":"13","author":"Merchant","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat Rev Nephrol"},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nrm.2017.125","article-title":"Shedding light on the cell biology of extracellular vesicles","volume":"19","author":"van Niel","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol"},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/21541248.2016.1215283","article-title":"Biology and biogenesis of shed microvesicles","volume":"8","author":"Tricarico","year":"2017","journal-title":"Small GTPases"},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tcb.2016.11.003","article-title":"Extracellular Vesicles: Unique Intercellular Delivery Vehicles","volume":"27","author":"Maas","year":"2017","journal-title":"Trends Cell Biol"},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3402\/jev.v3.26913","article-title":"Minimal experimental requirements for definition of extracellular vesicles and their functions: a position statement from the International Society for Extracellular Vesicles","volume":"3","author":"L\u00f6tvall","year":"2014","journal-title":"J Extracell Vesicles"},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9258(18)48095-7","article-title":"Vesicle formation during reticulocyte maturation. 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