{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,22]],"date-time":"2026-10-22T15:58:45Z","timestamp":1792684725813,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":110,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,19]],"date-time":"2021-04-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1618790400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Immunol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Innate lymphoid type-2 cells (ILC2) are a population of innate cells of lymphoid origin that are known to drive strong Type 2 immunity. ILC2 play a key role in lung homeostasis, repair\/remodeling of lung structures following injury, and initiation of inflammation as well as more complex roles during the immune response, including the transition from innate to adaptive immunity. Remarkably, dysregulation of this single population has been linked with chronic lung pathologies, including asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and idiopathic pulmonary fibrotic diseases (IPF). Furthermore, ILC2 have been shown to increase following early-life respiratory viral infections, such as respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) and rhinovirus (RV), that may lead to long-term alterations of the lung environment. The detrimental roles of increased ILC2 following these infections may include pathogenic chronic inflammation and\/or alterations of the structural, repair, and even developmental processes of the lung. Respiratory viral infections in older adults and patients with established chronic pulmonary diseases often lead to exacerbated responses, likely due to previous exposures that leave the lung in a dysregulated functional and structural state. This review will focus on the role of ILC2 during respiratory viral exposures and their effects on the induction and regulation of lung pathogenesis. We aim to provide insight into ILC2-driven mechanisms that may enhance lung-associated diseases throughout life. Understanding these mechanisms will help identify better treatment options to limit not only viral infection severity but also protect against the development and\/or exacerbation of other lung pathologies linked to severe respiratory viral infections.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.675169","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,19]],"date-time":"2021-04-19T00:14:59Z","timestamp":1618791299000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":57,"title":["Role of ILC2 in Viral-Induced Lung Pathogenesis"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Wendy","family":"Fonseca","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nicholas W.","family":"Lukacs","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Srikanth","family":"Elesela","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Carrie-Anne","family":"Malinczak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4939-8549-4_21","article-title":"Isolation and Identification of Innate Lymphoid Cells (ILCs) for Immunotoxicity Testing","volume":"1803","author":"Tait Wojno","year":"2018","journal-title":"Methods Mol Biol"},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2174\/1573395510666140304235916","article-title":"Type 2 Innate Lymphoid Cells in Allergic Disease","volume":"9","author":"Lund","year":"2013","journal-title":"Curr Immunol Rev"},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1217158110","article-title":"Essential, Dose-Dependent Role for the Transcription Factor Gata3 in the Development of IL-5+ and IL-13+ Type 2 Innate Lymphoid Cells","volume":"110","author":"Klein Wolterink","year":"2013","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A"},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2012.06.020","article-title":"The Transcription Factor GATA-3 Controls Cell Fate and Maintenance of Type 2 Innate Lymphoid Cells","volume":"37","author":"Hoyler","year":"2012","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2012.08.015","article-title":"The Transcription Factor GATA3 is Essential for the Function of Human Type 2 Innate Lymphoid Cells","volume":"37","author":"Mj\u00f6sberg","year":"2012","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1038\/s41385-018-0130-4","article-title":"Pulmonary Group 2 Innate Lymphoid Cells: Surprises and Challenges","volume":"12","author":"Starkey","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mucosal Immunol"},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e20182293","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20182293","article-title":"Single-Cell Analysis of ROR\u03b1 Tracer Mouse Lung Reveals ILC Progenitors and Effector ILC2 Subsets","volume":"217","author":"Ghaedi","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Exp Med"},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/ni.2208","article-title":"Transcription Factor ROR\u03b1 is Critical for Nuocyte Development","volume":"13","author":"Wong","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat Immunol"},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41590-018-0201-4","article-title":"Tissue Signals Imprint ILC2 Identity With Anticipatory Function","volume":"19","author":"Ricardo-Gonzalez","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat Immunol"},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41385-018-0117-1","article-title":"Group 2 Innate Lymphoid Cells (ILC2) are Regulated by Stem Cell Factor During Chronic Asthmatic Disease","volume":"12","author":"Fonseca","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mucosal Immunol"},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"814","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2016.01.050","article-title":"Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infection Activates IL-13-producing Group 2 Innate Lymphoid Cells Through Thymic Stromal Lymphopoietin","volume":"138","author":"Stier","year":"2016","journal-title":"J Allergy Clin Immunol"},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1038\/nature14189","article-title":"The Biology of Innate Lymphoid Cells","volume":"517","author":"Artis","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1513\/AnnalsATS.201403-097AW","article-title":"Type-2 Innate Lymphoid Cells in Asthma and Allergy","volume":"11","author":"McKenzie","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ann ATS"},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2015.01.020","article-title":"Emerging Functions of Amphiregulin in Orchestrating Immunity, Inflammation and Tissue Repair","volume":"42","author":"Zaiss","year":"2015","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2018.00840","article-title":"Group 2 Innate Lymphoid Cells in Pulmonary Immunity and Tissue Homeostasis","volume":"9","author":"Mindt","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front Immunol"},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/ni.3443","article-title":"Inflammatory Triggers Associated With Exacerbations of COPD Orchestrate Plasticity of Group 2 Innate Lymphoid Cells in the Lungs","volume":"17","author":"Silver","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat Immunol"},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1315854111","article-title":"IL-25 and Type 2 Innate Lymphoid Cells Induce Pulmonary Fibrosis","volume":"111","author":"Hams","year":"2014","journal-title":"PNAS"},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e51268","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0051268","article-title":"Neutralization of TSLP Inhibits Airway Remodeling in a Murine Model of Allergic Asthma Induced by Chronic Exposure to House Dust Mite","volume":"8","author":"Chen","year":"2013","journal-title":"PloS One"},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/thx.2007.086744","article-title":"Association Between Early Life History of Respiratory Disease and Morbidity and Mortality in Adulthood","volume":"63","author":"Galobardes","year":"2008","journal-title":"Thorax"},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1753465813479428","article-title":"Early Life Influences on the Development of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease","volume":"7","author":"Stocks","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ther Adv Respir Dis"},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1183\/09031936.00084114","article-title":"Early-Life Origins of Chronic Respiratory Diseases: Understanding and Promoting Healthy Ageing","volume":"44","author":"Carraro","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eur Respir J"},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1155\/2019\/3140183","article-title":"ILC2s Induce Adaptive Th2-Type Immunity in Acute Exacerbation of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease","volume":"2019","author":"Jiang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mediators Inflamm"},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2147\/ciia.2006.1.3.253","article-title":"Effect of Aging on Respiratory System Physiology and Immunology","volume":"1","author":"Sharma","year":"2006","journal-title":"Clin Interv Aging"},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e13019","DOI":"10.1111\/acel.13019","article-title":"Compartmentalized Effects of Aging on Group 2 Innate Lymphoid Cell Development and Function","volume":"18","author":"D\u2019Souza","year":"2019","journal-title":"Aging Cell"},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1425","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2019.04.019","article-title":"Tissue-Resident Group 2 Innate Lymphoid Cells Differentiate by Layered Ontogeny and In Situ Perinatal Priming","volume":"50","author":"Schneider","year":"2019","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aac9593","article-title":"Tissue Residency of Innate Lymphoid Cells in Lymphoid and Nonlymphoid Organs","volume":"350","author":"Gasteiger","year":"2015","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2016.12.984","article-title":"Group 2 Innate Lymphoid Cell Activation in the Neonatal Lung Drives Type 2 Immunity and Allergen Sensitization","volume":"140","author":"Steer","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Allergy Clin Immunol"},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2016.10.031","article-title":"Perinatal Activation of the Interleukin-33 Pathway Promotes Type 2 Immunity in the Developing Lung","volume":"45","author":"de Kleer","year":"2016","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1159\/000092868","article-title":"Structural Aspects of Postnatal Lung Development - Alveolar Formation and Growth","volume":"89","author":"Burri","year":"2006","journal-title":"Biol Neonate"},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1067\/mai.2001.112943","article-title":"Childhood Risk Factors for Atopy and the Importance of Early Intervention","volume":"107","author":"Wahn","year":"2001","journal-title":"J Allergy Clin Immunol"},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2016.03.039","article-title":"Common-Lymphoid-Progenitor-Independent Pathways of Innate and T Lymphocyte Development","volume":"15","author":"Ghaedi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cell Rep"},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2017.01.071","article-title":"First-Breath-Induced Type 2 Pathways Shape the Lung Immune Environment","volume":"18","author":"Saluzzo","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cell Rep"},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e135961","DOI":"10.1172\/jci.insight.135961","article-title":"Lung Group 2 Innate Lymphoid Cells are Trained by Endogenous IL-33 in the Neonatal Period","volume":"5","author":"Steer","year":"2020","journal-title":"JCI Insight"},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2016.06.017","article-title":"Allergen-Experienced Group 2 Innate Lymphoid Cells Acquire Memory-like Properties and Enhance Allergic Lung Inflammation","volume":"45","author":"Martinez-Gonzalez","year":"2016","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1016\/j.stem.2017.03.024","article-title":"Recruited Monocytes and Type 2 Immunity Promote Lung Regeneration Following Pneumonectomy","volume":"21","author":"Lechner","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cell Stem Cell"},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1155\/2020\/8050186","article-title":"Tissue-Resident Type 2 Innate Lymphoid Cells Arrest Alveolarization in Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia","volume":"2020","author":"Mi","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Immunol Res"},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(17)30396-1","article-title":"Estimates of the Global, Regional, and National Morbidity, Mortality, and Aetiologies of Lower Respiratory Tract Infections in 195 Countries: A Systematic Analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015","volume":"17","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet Infect Dis"},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/pai.13317","article-title":"Bronchiolitis and Recurrent Wheezing are Distinguished by Type 2 Innate Lymphoid Cells and Immune Response","volume":"32","author":"Sastre","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pediatr Allergy Immunol"},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/ni.2045","article-title":"Innate Lymphoid Cells Mediate Influenza-Induced Airway Hyper-Reactivity Independently of Adaptive Immunity","volume":"12","author":"Chang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nat Immunol"},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1700216","article-title":"The Innate Cytokines IL-25, IL-33, and TSLP Cooperate in the Induction of Type 2 Innate Lymphoid Cell Expansion and Mucous Metaplasia in Rhinovirus-Infected Immature Mice","volume":"199","author":"Han","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Immunol"},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1005217","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1005217","article-title":"Respiratory Syncytial Virus Disease is Mediated by Age-Variable IL-33","volume":"11","author":"Saravia","year":"2015","journal-title":"PloS Pathog"},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1152\/ajplung.00368.2016","article-title":"ROR\u03b1-Dependent Type 2 Innate Lymphoid Cells are Required and Sufficient for Mucous Metaplasia in Immature Mice","volume":"312","author":"Rajput","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol"},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/all.14310","article-title":"Inhibition of Uric Acid or IL-1\u03b2 Ameliorates Respiratory Syncytial Virus Immunopathology and Development of Asthma","volume":"75","author":"Schuler","year":"2020","journal-title":"Allergy"},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41385-019-0171-3","article-title":"Sex-Associated TSLP-induced Immune Alterations Following Early-Life RSV Infection Leads to Enhanced Allergic Disease","volume":"12","author":"Malinczak","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mucosal Immunol"},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"691","DOI":"10.1038\/s41385-020-0264-z","article-title":"Uric Acid Pathway Activation During Respiratory Virus Infection Promotes Th2 Immune Response Via Innate Cytokine Production and ILC2 Accumulation","volume":"13","author":"Fonseca","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mucosal Immunol"},{"key":"B46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2020.03.039","article-title":"Early-Life Heterologous Rhinovirus Infections Induce an Exaggerated Asthma-Like Phenotype","volume":"146","author":"Rajput","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Allergy Clin Immunol"},{"key":"B47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2014.04.020","article-title":"Neonatal Rhinovirus Induces Mucous Metaplasia and Airways Hyperresponsiveness Through IL-25 and Type 2 Innate Lymphoid Cells","volume":"134","author":"Hong","year":"2014","journal-title":"J Allergy Clin Immunol"},{"key":"B48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1165\/rcmb.2016-0056OC","article-title":"IFN-\u03b3 Blocks Development of an Asthma Phenotype in Rhinovirus-Infected Baby Mice by Inhibiting Type 2 Innate Lymphoid Cells","volume":"56","author":"Han","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol"},{"key":"B49","article-title":"[Risk Factors for Acute Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infection of Lower Respiratory Tract in Hospitalized Infants]","volume":"52","author":"Zhang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Zhonghua Er Ke Za Zhi"},{"key":"B50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1398-9995.2008.01880.x","article-title":"Gender Difference, Sex Hormones, and Immediate Type Hypersensitivity Reactions","volume":"63","author":"Chen","year":"2008","journal-title":"Allergy"},{"key":"B51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/SHK.0b013e3181b2b36b","article-title":"Gender Differences in Inflammatory Markers in Children","volume":"33","author":"Casimir","year":"2010","journal-title":"Shock"},{"key":"B52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaut.2011.11.013","article-title":"Sex Affects Immunity","volume":"38","author":"Pennell","year":"2012","journal-title":"J Autoimmun"},{"key":"B53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"228","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2014.01.027","article-title":"GATA Binding Protein 3+ Group 2 Innate Lymphoid Cells are Present in Cord Blood and in Higher Proportions in Male Than in Female Neonates","volume":"134","author":"Forsberg","year":"2014","journal-title":"J Allergy Clin Immunol"},{"key":"B54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2017.10.110","article-title":"Testosterone Attenuates Group 2 Innate Lymphoid Cell-Mediated Airway Inflammation","volume":"21","author":"Cephus","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cell Rep"},{"key":"B55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20161807","article-title":"Androgen Signaling Negatively Controls Group 2 Innate Lymphoid Cells","volume":"214","author":"Laffont","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Exp Med"},{"key":"B56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI124606","article-title":"Epithelial Cell-Derived Cytokines: More Than Just Signaling the Alarm","volume":"129","author":"Roan","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Clin Invest"},{"key":"B57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nature16161","article-title":"Tuft-Cell-Derived IL-25 Regulates an Intestinal ILC2-epithelial Response Circuit","volume":"529","author":"von Moltke","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"B58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201812-2366OC","article-title":"Elevated Levels of Type 2 Respiratory Innate Lymphoid Cells in Human Infants With Severe Respiratory Syncytial Virus Bronchiolitis","volume":"200","author":"Vu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am J Respir Crit Care Med"},{"key":"B59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/all.14091","article-title":"Pulmonary IL-33 Orchestrates Innate Immune Cells to Mediate Respiratory Syncytial Virus-Evoked Airway Hyperreactivity and Eosinophilia","volume":"75","author":"Wu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Allergy"},{"key":"B60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1601984","article-title":"STAT1 Represses Cytokine-Producing Group 2 and Group 3 Innate Lymphoid Cells During Viral Infection","volume":"199","author":"Stier","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Immunol"},{"key":"B61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intimp.2019.105784","article-title":"Critical Role of OX40\/OX40L in ILC2-mediated Activation of CD4+T Cells During Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infection in Mice","volume":"76","author":"Wu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int Immunopharmacol"},{"key":"B62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/all.14241","article-title":"IL-1\u03b2 Prevents ILC2 Expansion, Type 2 Cytokine Secretion, and Mucus Metaplasia in Response to Early-Life Rhinovirus Infection in Mice","volume":"75","author":"Han","year":"2020","journal-title":"Allergy"},{"key":"B63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41385-019-0172-2","article-title":"Inflammasome Activation is Required for Human Rhinovirus-Induced Airway Inflammation in Naive and Allergen-Sensitized Mice","volume":"12","author":"Han","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mucosal Immunol"},{"key":"B64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/pai.12462","article-title":"Pandemic Influenza Virus, pH1N1, Induces Asthmatic Symptoms Via Activation of Innate Lymphoid Cells","volume":"26","author":"Shim","year":"2015","journal-title":"Pediatr Allergy Immunol"},{"key":"B65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1003615","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1003615","article-title":"Group 2 Innate Lymphoid Cell Production of IL-5 is Regulated by NKT Cells During Influenza Virus Infection","volume":"9","author":"Gorski","year":"2013","journal-title":"PloS Pathog"},{"key":"B66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1038\/ni.3308","article-title":"Type I Interferon Restricts Type 2 Immunopathology Through the Regulation of Group 2 Innate Lymphoid Cells","volume":"17","author":"Duerr","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat Immunol"},{"key":"B67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/mi.2017.41","article-title":"IFN-\u03b3 Increases Susceptibility to Influenza A Infection Through Suppression of Group II Innate Lymphoid Cells","volume":"11","author":"Califano","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mucosal Immunol"},{"key":"B68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0244126","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0244126","article-title":"Antibody Response to SARS-CoV-2 Infection in Humans: A Systematic Review","volume":"15","author":"Post","year":"2020","journal-title":"PloS One"},{"key":"B69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41423-020-00596-2","article-title":"Severe COVID-19 Patients Exhibit an ILC2 NKG2D + Population in Their Impaired ILC Compartment","volume":"18","author":"Gomez-Cadena","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell Mol Immunol"},{"key":"B70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1224","DOI":"10.1002\/cti2.1224","article-title":"Innate Lymphoid Cell Composition Associates With COVID-19 Disease Severity","volume":"9","author":"Garc\u00eda","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin Transl Immunol"},{"key":"B71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1031\/ni.2131","article-title":"Innate Lymphoid Cells Promote Lung Tissue Homeostasis Following Acute Influenza Virus Infection","volume":"12","author":"Monticelli","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nat Immunol"},{"key":"B72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"PA4195","DOI":"10.1183\/13993003.congress-2015.PA4195","article-title":"Hyperactivity of the IL33-ST2 Axis During Postnatal Alveolarization Increases Susceptibility to Allergic Airway Inflammation by Enhancing Migration and Skewing of CD11b+ Dendritic Cells","volume":"46","author":"Kleer","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur Respir J"},{"key":"B73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/path.5211","article-title":"Lung Development and Emerging Roles for Type 2 Immunity","volume":"247","author":"Loering","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Pathol"},{"key":"B74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.alit.2020.11.007","article-title":"Trained Innate Lymphoid Cells in Allergic Diseases","volume":"70","author":"Ebihara","year":"2020","journal-title":"Allergol Int"},{"key":"B75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1111\/imr.12643","article-title":"ILC2 Memory: Recollection of Previous Activation","volume":"283","author":"Martinez-Gonzalez","year":"2018","journal-title":"Immunol Rev"},{"key":"B76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4103\/jfmpc.jfmpc_86_19","article-title":"Asthma Exacerbation Related to Viral Infections: An Up to Date Summary","volume":"8","author":"Adeli","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Family Med Prim Care"},{"key":"B77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2004.04.006","article-title":"Viral Infections in Relation to Age, Atopy, and Season of Admission Among Children Hospitalized for Wheezing","volume":"114","author":"Heymann","year":"2004","journal-title":"J Allergy Clin Immunol"},{"key":"B78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5546\/aap.2018.eng.192","article-title":"Most Commonly Isolated Viruses in Asthma Exacerbation and Their Correlation With Eosinophil and Total Serum Immunoglobulin E Levels","volume":"116","author":"Robledo Aceves","year":"2018","journal-title":"Arch Argent Pediatr"},{"key":"B79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.smim.2019.101333","article-title":"Immunologic Mechanisms in Asthma","volume":"46","author":"Boonpiyathad","year":"2019","journal-title":"Semin Immunol"},{"key":"B80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chest.2019.04.101","article-title":"Group 2 Innate Lymphoid Cells in Airway Diseases","volume":"156","author":"Kato","year":"2019","journal-title":"Chest"},{"key":"B81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2500\/aap.2019.40.4217","article-title":"Role of Innate Lymphoid Cells in Allergic Diseases","volume":"40","author":"Pasha","year":"2019","journal-title":"Allergy Asthma Proc"},{"key":"B82","first-page":"1","article-title":"Group 2 Innate Lymphoid Cells: New Players in Human Allergic Diseases","volume":"25","author":"Doherty","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Investig Allergol Clin Immunol"},{"key":"B83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2017.03.032","article-title":"Steroid Resistance of Airway Type 2 Innate Lymphoid Cells From Patients With Severe Asthma: The Role of Thymic Stromal Lymphopoietin","volume":"141","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Allergy Clin Immunol"},{"key":"B84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"eabd3489","DOI":"10.1126\/sciimmunol.abd3489","article-title":"Steroid-Resistant Human Inflammatory ILC2s are Marked by CD45RO and Elevated in Type 2 Respiratory Diseases","volume":"6","author":"van der Ploeg","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci Immunol"},{"key":"B85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1189\/jlb.3RI0314-129R","article-title":"Respiratory Viral Infection, Epithelial Cytokines, and Innate Lymphoid Cells in Asthma Exacerbations","volume":"96","author":"Kumar","year":"2014","journal-title":"J Leukoc Biol"},{"key":"B86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201406-1039OC","article-title":"IL-33-dependent Type 2 Inflammation During Rhinovirus-Induced Asthma Exacerbations in Vivo","volume":"190","author":"Jackson","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am J Respir Crit Care Med"},{"key":"B87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"682","DOI":"10.3390\/v10120682","article-title":"Small Animal Models of Respiratory Viral Infection Related to Asthma","volume":"10","author":"Han","year":"2018","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"B88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1000286","article-title":"Rhinovirus Infection of Allergen-Sensitized and -Challenged Mice Induces Eotaxin Release From Functionally Polarized Macrophages","volume":"185","author":"Nagarkar","year":"2010","journal-title":"J Immunol"},{"key":"B89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1152\/ajplung.00182.2012","article-title":"Macrophage\/Epithelial Cell CCL2 Contributes to Rhinovirus-Induced Hyperresponsiveness and Inflammation in a Mouse Model of Allergic Airways Disease","volume":"304","author":"Schneider","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol"},{"key":"B90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4168\/aair.2015.7.6.525","article-title":"Models of Respiratory Infections: Virus-Induced Asthma Exacerbations and Beyond","volume":"7","author":"Saturni","year":"2015","journal-title":"Allergy Asthma Immunol Res"},{"key":"B91","first-page":"P2469","article-title":"Influenza But Not Rhinovirus Viral Strain Causes Exacerbation of a House Dust Mite Driven Severe Asthma Mouse Model","volume":"44","author":"Alba","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eur Respir J"},{"key":"B92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/eji.201747421","article-title":"T Cells and ILC2s are Major Effector Cells in Influenza-Induced Exacerbation of Allergic Airway Inflammation in Mice","volume":"49","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur J Immunol"},{"key":"B93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1378\/chest.09-3058","article-title":"Expression of the T Helper 17-Associated Cytokines IL-17A and IL-17F in Asthma and COPD","volume":"138","author":"Doe","year":"2010","journal-title":"Chest"},{"key":"B94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/resp.12841","article-title":"Airway Remodelling in COPD: It\u2019s Not Asthma","volume":"21","author":"Jones","year":"2016","journal-title":"Respirology"},{"key":"B95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rmed.2015.10.012","article-title":"Prevalence and Underdiagnosis of Airway Obstruction Among Middle-Aged Adults in Northern France: The ELISABET Study 2011\u20132013","volume":"109","author":"Quach","year":"2015","journal-title":"Respir Med"},{"key":"B96","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"180063","DOI":"10.1183\/16000617.0063-2018","article-title":"Respiratory Viral Infection: A Potential \u201cMissing Link\u201d in the Pathogenesis of COPD","volume":"28","author":"Linden","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur Respir Rev"},{"key":"B97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcv.2014.06.025","article-title":"The Relevance of Respiratory Viral Infections in the Exacerbations of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease\u2014A Systematic Review","volume":"61","author":"Zwaans","year":"2014","journal-title":"J Clin Virol"},{"key":"B98","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1189\/jlb.0213084","article-title":"Type 2 Innate Lymphoid Cells Constitutively Express Arginase-I in the Naive and Inflamed Lung","volume":"94","author":"Bando","year":"2013","journal-title":"J\u00a0Leukoc Biol"},{"key":"B99","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2014.00532","article-title":"Metabolism Via Arginase or Nitric Oxide Synthase: Two Competing Arginine Pathways in Macrophages","volume":"5","author":"Rath","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front Immunol"},{"key":"B100","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/ni.3421","article-title":"Arginase 1 is an Innate Lymphoid-Cell-Intrinsic Metabolic Checkpoint Controlling Type 2 Inflammation","volume":"17","author":"Monticelli","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat Immunol"},{"key":"B101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/JLB.3AB0518-178R","article-title":"Roles for T\/B Lymphocytes and ILC2s in Experimental Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease","volume":"105","author":"Donovan","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Leukoc Biol"},{"key":"B102","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(14)70101-8","article-title":"Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis in US Medicare Beneficiaries Aged 65 Years and Older: Incidence, Prevalence, and Survival, 2001-11","volume":"2","author":"Raghu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Lancet Respir Med"},{"key":"B103","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201312-2221PP","article-title":"Revealing the Pathogenic and Aging-Related Mechanisms of the Enigmatic Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis. An Integral Model","volume":"189","author":"Selman","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am J Respir Crit Care Med"},{"key":"B104","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/eji.201142018","article-title":"Pulmonary Innate Lymphoid Cells are Major Producers of IL-5 and IL-13 in Murine Models of Allergic Asthma","volume":"42","author":"Klein Wolterink","year":"2012","journal-title":"Eur J Immunol"},{"key":"B105","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1186\/s12890-017-0380-z","article-title":"Upregulation of interleukin-33 and Thymic Stromal Lymphopoietin Levels in the Lungs of Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis","volume":"17","author":"Lee","year":"2017","journal-title":"BMC Pulm Med"},{"key":"B106","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1200259","article-title":"Full-Length IL-33 Promotes Inflammation But Not Th2 Response in Vivo in an ST2-independent Fashion","volume":"189","author":"Luzina","year":"2012","journal-title":"J Immunol"},{"key":"B107","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"999","DOI":"10.1165\/rcmb.2013-0093OC","article-title":"Interleukin-33 Potentiates Bleomycin-Induced Lung Injury","volume":"49","author":"Luzina","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol"},{"key":"B108","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1422","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2014.05.011","article-title":"IL-33 Promotes ST2-dependent Lung Fibrosis by the Induction\u00a0of Alternatively Activated Macrophages and Innate\u00a0Lymphoid Cells in Mice","volume":"134","author":"Li","year":"2014","journal-title":"J Allergy Clin Immunol"},{"key":"B109","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/annrheumdis-2015-207388","article-title":"Type 2 Innate Lymphoid Cell Counts are Increased in Patients With Systemic Sclerosis and Correlate With the Extent of Fibrosis","volume":"75","author":"Wohlfahrt","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ann Rheum Dis"},{"key":"B110","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1155\/2019\/5160694","article-title":"The Role of Infection in Acute Exacerbation of Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis","volume":"2019","author":"Weng","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mediators Inflamm"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Immunology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fimmu.2021.675169\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,19]],"date-time":"2021-04-19T00:15:05Z","timestamp":1618791305000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fimmu.2021.675169\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,19]]},"references-count":110,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fimmu.2021.675169"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fimmu.2021.675169","relation":{},"ISSN":["1664-3224"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1664-3224","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,19]]},"article-number":"675169"}}