{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,14]],"date-time":"2026-10-14T16:16:16Z","timestamp":1791994576522,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":116,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,24]],"date-time":"2021-08-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1629763200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Immunol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Bullous pemphigoid (BP) is the most common autoimmune subepidermal blistering disorder in the elderly. Systemic and topical use of glucocorticoids and immunosuppressants has been shown to be effective in most patients. However, refractory BP patients are challenged to clinicians with severe clinical symptoms, resistance to treatment, and high relapse rate. How to predict and assess the refractory and severity of bullous pemphigoid is the key issue in clinical practice, and the urgent need for precision medicine in refractory patients is driving the search for biomarkers and biologics. Recently, some biomarkers, such as the level of specific autoantibodies and released cytokines, have been proposed as the potential parameters to reflect the disease severity and predict the treatment response and relapse of refractory BP. Moreover, new biologics targeting pathogenic antibodies, complement, Th2 axis, eosinophils, and Th17 axis have shown potent efficacy on refractory BP. Here, we review the literature and give an overview of emerging biomarkers and therapeutic strategies for refractory bullous pemphigoid to improve the prognosis of the patient.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.718073","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,24]],"date-time":"2021-08-24T08:56:20Z","timestamp":1629795380000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Emerging Biomarkers and Therapeutic Strategies for Refractory Bullous Pemphigoid"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Tong","family":"Zhou","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bin","family":"Peng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Songmei","family":"Geng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1998","DOI":"10.1038\/jid.2012.35","article-title":"Incidence and Mortality of Bullous Pemphigoid in France","volume":"132","author":"Joly","year":"2012","journal-title":"J Invest Dermatol"},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/1346-8138.12711","article-title":"Outcome Measures for Autoimmune Blistering Diseases","volume":"42","author":"Zhao","year":"2015","journal-title":"J 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