{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,1]],"date-time":"2026-11-01T18:25:44Z","timestamp":1793557544368,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":64,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,17]],"date-time":"2022-10-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1665964800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["No. 81873636"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["No. 81873636"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Immunol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Autoimmune thyroid disease (AITD), the most common autoimmune disease, includes Graves\u2019 disease (GD) and Hashimoto\u2019s thyroiditis (HT). Currently, the pathogenesis of AITD is not fully understood. Our study aimed to examine the presence of macrophage polarization imbalance in AITD patients, to investigate whether high iodine can cause macrophage polarization imbalance, and to investigate the role of key genes of metabolic reprogramming in macrophage polarization imbalance caused by high iodine. We synergistically used various research strategies such as systems biology, clinical studies, cell culture and mouse disease models. Gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) revealed that M1 macrophage hyperpolarization was involved in the pathogenesis of AITD. <jats:italic>In vitro<\/jats:italic> and <jats:italic>in vivo<\/jats:italic> experiments showed that high iodine can affect the polarization of M1 or M2 macrophages and their related cytokines. Robust rank aggregation (RRA) method revealed that hexokinase 3 (HK3) was the most aberrantly expressed metabolic gene in autoimmune diseases. <jats:italic>In vitro<\/jats:italic> and <jats:italic>in vivo<\/jats:italic> studies revealed HK3 could mediate macrophage polarization induced by high iodine. In summary, hyperpolarization of M1-type macrophages is closely related to the pathogenesis of AITD. High iodine can increase HK3 expression in macrophages and promote macrophage polarization towards M1. Targeting HK3 can inhibit M1 polarization induced by high iodine.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.1009932","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,17]],"date-time":"2022-10-17T04:45:40Z","timestamp":1665981940000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":24,"title":["High iodine promotes autoimmune thyroid disease by activating hexokinase 3 and inducing polarization of macrophages towards 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