{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,1]],"date-time":"2026-08-01T02:34:02Z","timestamp":1785551642561,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,12]],"date-time":"2022-10-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1665532800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Immunol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>A gradual decay in humoral and cellular immune responses over time upon SAR1S-CoV-2 vaccination may cause a lack of protective immunity. We conducted a longitudinal analysis of antibodies, T cells, and monocytes in 25 participants vaccinated with mRNA or ChAdOx1-S up to 12 weeks after the 3<jats:sup>rd<\/jats:sup> (booster) dose with mRNA vaccine. We observed a substantial increase in antibodies and CD8 T cells specific for the spike protein of SARS-CoV-2 after vaccination. Moreover, vaccination induced activated T cells expressing CD69, CD137 and producing IFN-\u03b3 and TNF-\u03b1. Virus-specific CD8 T cells showed predominantly memory phenotype. Although the level of antibodies and frequency of virus-specific T cells reduced 4-6 months after the 2<jats:sup>nd<\/jats:sup> dose, they were augmented after the 3<jats:sup>rd<\/jats:sup> dose followed by a decrease later. Importantly, T cells generated after the 3<jats:sup>rd<\/jats:sup> vaccination were also reactive against Omicron variant, indicated by a similar level of IFN-\u03b3 production after stimulation with Omicron peptides. Breakthrough infection in participants vaccinated with two doses induced more SARS-CoV-2-specific T cells than the booster vaccination. We found an upregulation of PD-L1 expression on monocytes but no accumulation of myeloid cells with MDSC-like immunosuppressive phenotype after the vaccination. Our results indicate that the 3<jats:sup>rd<\/jats:sup> vaccination fosters antibody and T cell immune response independently from vaccine type used for the first two injections. However, such immune response is attenuated over time, suggesting thereby the need for further vaccinations.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.1012526","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,12]],"date-time":"2022-10-12T09:09:07Z","timestamp":1665565747000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":37,"title":["Booster dose of mRNA vaccine augments waning T cell and antibody responses against SARS-CoV-2"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Feyza G\u00fcl","family":"\u00d6zbay 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