{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T11:30:18Z","timestamp":1790767818357,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":37,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,14]],"date-time":"2022-02-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1644796800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Immunol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>A successful vaccination would represent the most efficient means to control the pandemic of Coronavirus Disease-19 (COVID-19) that led to millions of deaths worldwide. Novel mRNA-based vaccines confer protective immunity against SARS-CoV-2, but whether immunity is immediately effective and how long it will remain in recipients are uncertain. We sought to assess the effectiveness of a two-dose regimen since the boosts are often delayed concerning the recommended intervals.<\/jats:p><jats:sec><jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>A longitudinal cohort of healthcare workers (HCW, <jats:italic>N<\/jats:italic> = 46; 30.4% men; 69.6% women; mean age 36.05 \u00b1 2.2 years) with no SARS-CoV-2 infection as documented by negative polymerase chain reaction was immunophenotyped in PBMC once a week for 4 weeks from the prime immunization (Pfizer mRNA BNT162b2) and had received 2 doses, to study the kinetic response.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>We identified three risk groups to develop SARS-CoV-2 infection IgG<jats:sup>+<\/jats:sup>-based (late responders, R<jats:sup>-<\/jats:sup>; early responders, R<jats:sup>+<\/jats:sup>; pauci responders, PR). In all receipts, amplification of B cells and NK cells, including IL4-producing B cells and IL4-producing CD8<jats:sup>+<\/jats:sup> T cells, is early stimulated by the vaccine. After the boost, we observed a growing increase of NK cells but a resistance of T cells, IFN\u03b3-producing CD4<jats:sup>+<\/jats:sup>T cells, and IFN\u03b3-producing NK cells. Also, hematologic parameters decline until the boost. The positive association of IFN\u03b3-producing NK with IFN\u03b3-producing CD4<jats:sup>+<\/jats:sup>T cells by the multiple mixed-effect model, adjusted for confounders (p = 0.036) as well as the correlation matrix (r = 0.6, p &amp;lt; 0.01), suggests a relationship between these two subsets of lymphocytes.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title><jats:p>These findings introduce several concerns about policy delay in vaccination: based on immunological protection, B cells and the persistent increase of NK cells during 2 doses of the mRNA-based vaccine could provide further immune protection against the virus, while CD8<jats:sup>+<\/jats:sup> T cells increased slightly only in the R<jats:sup>+<\/jats:sup> and PR groups.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.798813","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,14]],"date-time":"2022-02-14T06:24:37Z","timestamp":1644819877000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":16,"title":["SARS-CoV-2 Immunization Orchestrates the Amplification of IFN\u03b3-Producing T Cell and NK Cell Persistence"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Lucia","family":"La Sala","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sara","family":"Gandini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Antonino","family":"Bruno","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Raffaele","family":"Allevi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Matteo","family":"Gallazzi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pamela","family":"Senesi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maria Teresa","family":"Palano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Paola","family":"Meregalli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ermanno","family":"Longhi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Carmen","family":"Sommese","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Livio","family":"Luzi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Emilio","family":"Trabucchi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","article-title":"Outpatient Management of COVID-19: Rapid Evidence Review","volume":"102","author":"Cheng","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am Fam Physician"},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"m1461","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.m1461","article-title":"Managing COVID-19 Symptoms (Including at the End of Life) in the Community: Summary of NICE Guidelines","volume":"369","author":"National Institute for","year":"2020","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.01061-20","article-title":"A Randomized Clinical Trial of the Efficacy and Safety of Interferon Beta-1a in Treatment of Severe COVID-19","volume":"64","author":"Davoudi-Monfared","year":"2020","journal-title":"Antimicrob Agents Chemother"},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMe2034717","article-title":"SARS-Cov-2 Vaccination - 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