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Immunol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Tissue resident immune system cells in the chicken intestine play a significant role in the protection against pathogens. However, very little is known about these cells. The current study was conducted to further characterize chicken intestinal immune system cells. Furthermore, this study aimed to assess the immune modulatory action of a highly virulent<jats:italic>Clostridium perfringens<\/jats:italic>, a commonly found chicken intestinal microbe, in comparison with a non-commensal,<jats:italic>Lactococcus lactis<\/jats:italic>, on intestine-derived immune system cells. The results demonstrated varying distribution of innate and adaptive immune cells along the avian gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT) in the duodenum, jejunum, ileum, and cecal tonsils. In addition, steady-state and tissue-specific presence of CD25+ cells among \u03b1\u03b2 and \u03b3\u03b4 T-cell subsets was assessed along the intestine.<jats:italic>Ex vivo<\/jats:italic>stimulation with<jats:italic>C. perfringens<\/jats:italic>or<jats:italic>L. lactis<\/jats:italic>resulted in a significant increase in the frequency of CD25+ T cells (\u03b3\u03b4 and \u03b1\u03b2 T cells). In addition, significantly more cell death was observed in<jats:italic>ex vivo<\/jats:italic>stimulation with<jats:italic>C. perfringens<\/jats:italic>, which was indirectly correlated with a decrease in macrophage activation based on nitric oxide (NO) production with no effect on lymphoid cell responsiveness as per intracellular interferon (IFN)-gamma (\u03b3) staining.<jats:italic>Ex vivo<\/jats:italic>stimulation with<jats:italic>L. lactis<\/jats:italic>activated \u03b3\u03b4 T cells and \u03b1\u03b2 T cells, based on intracellular IFN-\u03b3 staining, while it had limited effect on macrophages. However, the ability of \u03b3\u03b4 and \u03b1\u03b2 T cells to produce IFN-\u03b3 and the ability of macrophages production of NO was rescued in the presence of<jats:italic>L. lactis.<\/jats:italic>These results demonstrate the potential application of<jats:italic>L. lactis<\/jats:italic>, as a probiotic, against virulent<jats:italic>C. perfringens<\/jats:italic>infection in chicken.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.807343","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,9]],"date-time":"2022-02-09T05:58:34Z","timestamp":1644386314000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Ex Vivo Differential Responsiveness to Clostridium perfringens and Lactococcus lactis by Avian Small Intestine Macrophages and T Cells"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Nitish","family":"Boodhoo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Bahram","family":"Shojadoost","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Mohammadali","family":"Alizadeh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Raveendra R.","family":"Kulkarni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Shayan","family":"Sharif","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","article-title":"Necrotic Enteritis in the Fowl (Gallus Gallus Domesticus). 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